Reconquista

The Reconquista (Spanish and Portuguese for 'reconquest') or the fall of al-Andalus was a series of military campaigns by northern Iberian Christian polities against Muslim-ruled al-Andalus, which had previously been part of the Visigothic Kingdom before the Muslim Conquest of 711. The Reconquista concluded in 1492 with the capture of Granada by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, ending any Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula.

The beginning of the Reconquista is traditionally dated to the Battle of Covadonga (c. 718 or 722), about a decade after the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula began. In this battle, the army of the Kingdom of Asturias achieved the first Christian victory over the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate. By the early 11th century, the Umayyad state of Córdoba broke apart into smaller states known as taifas. The northern kingdoms advanced further, often making these states pay parias – tribute for protection.

Following an Almohad resurgence in the 12th century, the Christian kingdoms of León, Castile, Aragón, Navarre, and Portugal made more territorial gains. After the decisive Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, major Muslim-held cities like Córdoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248 fell to Christian forces, leaving Granada as the last Muslim-ruled state. After the surrender of Granada in January 1492, the entire Iberian peninsula was under Christian rule.

The concept of the Reconquista has inspired festivals like Moros y cristianos in parts of the Valencian Community and Spanish America. However, recent scholarship sees it as a complex process with regional differences, rather than a simple, continuous struggle.

Concept and duration

The term 'Reconquista' was not used during medieval times to describe the struggle between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula. It became a term used by historians much later and has taken on various meanings over time.

There were periods of peaceful coexistence between Christians and Muslims, and alliances were sometimes formed between them. The idea of a religious "reconquest" became stronger after the Crusades, which began in the late 11th century. Over time, the concept of the Reconquista was used to support nationalistic and political ideas in Spain, especially during the 19th and 20th centuries.

Background

Further information: Islam in Spain

Landing in Visigothic Hispania and initial expansion

Further information: Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula and Battle of Guadalete

In 711, a large army led by Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and fought the king of the Visigoths, Roderic, at the Battle of Guadalete. Roderic's army was weakened by internal conflicts, and many soldiers left before the battle. After the defeat, many towns in the area were taken by the new rulers. Some places agreed to keep their independence by making treaties.

Islamic rule

Main articles: Berbers and Islam and Berber Revolt

After taking control, new leaders were appointed from far away. There were also problems between the different groups of people who had come to rule the land. These tensions sometimes caused difficulties in keeping everything united. The new rulers continued to expand their control, reaching areas north of the Pyrenees. However, they faced strong resistance, especially in battles such as the Battle of Toulouse and later the Battle of Tours in 732, where they were defeated by forces led by Charles Martel. Despite this loss, Muslim rule continued in the Iberian Peninsula for many centuries.

Early Reconquista

Beginning of the Reconquista

Main article: Kingdom of Asturias

Higher taxes on Christians in the Muslim-ruled lands led to several uprisings. In about 722, a Muslim army moved north to stop a rebellion led by Pelagius of Asturias. Pelagius won a key battle at Covadonga, marking the start of the Reconquista—the Christian effort to take back the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule.

Two small northern areas, Navarre and Asturias, managed to stay independent. Though the Muslim rulers in Córdoba could not control areas beyond the Pyrenees mountains, they tried to strengthen their hold within the Iberian Peninsula. Despite occasional attacks into Asturias, this area remained a challenging and distant frontier for Muslim forces.

After Pelagius’s death, his son Favila took over but was killed by a bear. Pelagius’s family continued to rule, slowly growing their kingdom. Later leaders like Alfonso I expanded their lands into areas such as Galicia. By the time of Alfonso II, the kingdom was well established, gaining recognition from leaders like Charlemagne and the Pope. The discovery of St. James the Great’s bones in Santiago de Compostela drew pilgrims from across Europe, linking Asturias more closely with the rest of Europe.

Frankish invasions

Main articles: Umayyad invasion of Gaul and Marca Hispanica

After Muslims took over parts of what is now France, they were stopped at the Battle of Toulouse in 721. Later, Charlemagne created a region called the Spanish March to protect his southern borders. This included areas such as Catalonia.

Charlemagne crossed the Pyrenees mountains in 778 to help local leaders against a Muslim ruler but was forced to retreat after his army was ambushed at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. Over time, areas like Barcelona, Pamplona, Aragon, and Catalonia grew as small independent regions under Frankish influence, helping guard the Pyrenees passes and maintaining stability for centuries.

Reconquista as crusade

Main article: Iberian Crusades

The Reconquista was sometimes seen as a kind of crusade, where Christian rulers fought against Muslim rule in Spain. Pope Alexander II approved the capture of a city in 1064 as practice for crusades. Later popes encouraged Christians in Spain to fight Muslims, offering the same spiritual rewards as those fighting in the Holy Land. During the Second Crusade, some crusaders helped capture Lisbon and other cities in Spain.

Popes supported these battles and called them crusades. One pope even gave a special title and money to a Spanish king for capturing cities from Muslim rulers. The Church saw these wars as true crusades, even when most fighters were from Spain itself.

Northern Christian realms

See also: Spain in the Middle Ages § Medieval Christian Spain, and Portugal in the Middle Ages § Reconquista in Portugal

The northern areas of the Iberian Peninsula held on through tough, mountainous terrain. Around the 10th century, these areas began to expand southwards. The fall of the Caliphate of Cordova in 1031 led to more growth for these northern kingdoms, which had split into several powerful regions after the Kingdom of Navarre divided in 1035. Many independent Christian kingdoms appeared after this.

Kingdom of Asturias (718–924)

Main article: Kingdom of Asturias

See also: Kingdom of Galicia and Duchy of Cantabria

The Kingdom of Asturias lay in the Cantabrian Mountains, a rainy, mountainous part of northern Iberia. It was the first Christian kingdom to rise up, started by a leader named Pelagius who united local groups against Muslim rule. The kingdom grew from small guerrilla forces into a stronger realm. Kings like Alfonso III aimed to restore older Christian lands further south.

Kingdom of León (910–1230)

Main articles: Kingdom of León, Kingdom of Galicia, County of Portugal, and Portugal in the Reconquista

Alfonso III made León his capital and organized his lands into duchies and counties. After his death in 910, the kingdom became known as León. Leaders like Ordoño II attacked cities such as Toledo and Seville. Later kings faced challenges but eventually pushed further south.

Kingdom of Castile (1037–1230)

Main article: Kingdom of Castile

Ferdinand I led Castile in the mid-11th century, capturing cities like Coimbra. After his death, his sons fought for control. Alfonso VI took over and captured the important city of Toledo in 1085, a major step for Christian forces.

Kingdom of Pamplona / Kingdom of Navarre (824–1620)

Main article: Kingdom of Navarre

The Kingdom of Pamplona began when a local leader named Íñigo Arista declared independence. It grew under leaders like Sancho the Great, who added lands including parts of Castile and Leon. Later, it shrank to its core area and became known as Navarre.

Kingdom and Crown of Aragon (1035–1706)

Main articles: Kingdom of Aragon, County of Barcelona, Principality of Catalonia, Kingdom of Valencia, Kingdom of Mallorca, and Crown of Aragon

Aragon began as part of Navarre, then grew under leaders like Ramiro I. In 1137, it joined with Barcelona, forming the Crown of Aragon. This group added lands across Iberia and the Mediterranean, including Valencia and Mallorca.

Kingdom of Portugal (1139–1249)

Main article: Portugal in the Reconquista

In 1139, Afonso Henriques declared himself King of Portugal after a big battle. With help from crusaders, Portugal took cities like Lisbon and Santarém. By 1249, Portugal had captured the southern area of Algarve, finishing its part in the Reconquista.

Minor Christian realms

Minor Christian realms were the Kingdom of Viguera (970–1005), the Lordship of Albarracín (1167–1300), the Principality of Tarragona (1129–1173), and the Principality of Valencia (1094–1102).

Southern Islamic realms

Further information: al-Andalus

Umayyads

Main articles: Emirate of Córdoba and Caliphate of Córdoba

In the 9th century, leaders in faraway cities planned to become independent from the main city, Córdoba. In 929, the leader of the Umayyad dynasty, Abd-ar-Rahman III, declared himself Caliph, taking full control of the military, religion, and government. He fought against Christian kingdoms in the north, pushing them back beyond the Cantabrian Mountains. Later, his grandson was controlled by a powerful advisor named Almanzor, who attacked several Christian cities before his death in 1002.

Taifas

Main article: Taifa

After Almanzor's death, civil wars split the Islamic lands into many small kingdoms called taifas. These small kingdoms often fought each other. This weakness allowed Christian kings to advance, especially when Alfonso VI of Leon and Castile captured Toledo in 1085. Feeling threatened, the taifa rulers asked for help from a Berber leader named Yusuf ibn Tashfin.

Almoravids

Main article: Almoravid dynasty

The Almoravids, a Berber group, entered the Iberian peninsula to unite the taifas. They were less tolerant of Christians and Jews than previous rulers. They defeated a Christian king at the Battle of Sagrajas in 1086 but were later stopped by a Christian warrior known as El Cid in Valencia in 1094.

Almohads

Main article: Almohad Caliphate

The Almohads from North Africa took control of most of the Islamic lands in Spain but were defeated by Christian forces at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. After this, they lost most of their lands, and by 1252, only the Emirate of Granada remained.

Granada War and the end of Muslim rule

Main articles: Granada War and Treaty of Granada (1491)

The final part of the Reconquista happened when Ferdinand and Isabella began a war against the Emirate of Granada in 1482. The war ended in 1492 when Granada surrendered. Many Muslims left Spain or were enslaved, marking the end of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula.

Infighting

During the Reconquista, both Christian and Muslim rulers often fought among themselves. Christian kingdoms sometimes clashed with each other or even allied with Muslim kings. For example, a Christian warrior named El Cid fought for a Muslim ruler in battles against other Christian forces. There were also wars between Christian kings, such as conflicts between leaders of Castile and León.

Muslim rulers in the Iberian Peninsula also had their own disagreements. At times, different Muslim groups supported rival leaders, leading to battles between them. When Christian armies advanced into Muslim lands, some Muslim rulers asked for help from others, like the leaders of the Almoravid and Almohad movements. These outside forces sometimes turned against the local Muslim rulers after coming to their aid.

Christian repopulation

Further information: Medieval demography and Repoblación

The Reconquista was not just about battles; it was also about people moving to new places. Christian kings encouraged their people to move into areas that had been left empty when Muslims moved away. This helped to build strong communities that could protect the land.

One important area for new settlers was the Douro Basin in the north. People lived north of the Douro River from the 9th to the 10th centuries using a system called "presura," where families could claim land they could work and defend. South of the river, special charters called fueros gave people rights and protections. These charters helped towns grow and gain power, allowing them to support their kings with soldiers when needed. Over time, these charters shaped the way people lived and governed themselves in many parts of Spain.

Christian military culture

Jim Bradbury noted that not all Christian fighters in the Reconquista were driven by religion. Some were secular rulers, while others were military orders like the Knights Templar, Knights Hospitaller, and Teutonic Knights. These orders were more devoted to religious war and sometimes clashed with Muslim forces. However, Christian armies also made temporary alliances with Muslim leaders, and some Christian mercenaries even fought for Muslim rulers if paid well. One famous example is El Cid, a Christian leader who served the Islamic kings of Zaragoza.

Christian armies in this period had two main types of soldiers: cavalry and infantry. Cavalry included nobles and wealthy commoners who could afford horses. They used tactics like throwing javelins from a distance before charging with spears. Infantry were peasants who fought with bows, spears, and short swords, mainly supporting the cavalry. Their weapons included longbows, composite bows, and crossbows. Armor in the early years was made of leather and iron, with helmets and round or kidney-shaped shields. Over time, armor improved, and by the 14th and 15th centuries, knights often wore full plate armor.

Conversions and expulsions

Main articles: Treaty of Granada (1491), Alhambra decree, Expulsion of the Moriscos, Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain, and Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal

When the Christian rulers took control of areas that had been under Muslim rule, they required people to pay heavy taxes if they did not convert to Christianity. In 1492, about 200,000 Jewish people were forced to leave Spain. The following year, more rules were set that pushed Jews to change their religion. By 1502, it became required for everyone in the Kingdom of Castile to become Catholic. Later, in 1526, similar rules were applied to Muslims in the Kingdom of Aragon.

Spanish Inquisition

Main article: Spanish Inquisition

Many people with ancestors who were once Jewish or Muslim, known as Moriscos, Marranos, and Conversos, lived among Christians. Some secretly kept their old religious practices. The Spanish Inquisition watched closely for anyone still following Islam or Judaism, and those found were punished with imprisonment, exile, or other serious consequences. These "New Christians" were often treated unfairly and faced many restrictions.

Classifications and later consequences

The changing borders during the Reconquista created several new groups of people. The Muwallad were native Iberians who converted to Islam after Muslim rulers arrived. The Mozarabs were Christians living under Muslim rule; some moved north and brought new styles, foods, and farming methods while keeping their Christian beliefs.

There were also New Christians, Jews who converted to Christianity, called conversos or sometimes Marranos. Some secretly kept their Jewish practices. Later, all Jews were expelled from Spain and faced strict rules under the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions. The Mudéjar were Muslims living under Christian rule, and Moriscos were Muslims who converted to Christianity but some still practiced Islam in secret. Eventually, many Moriscos were also expelled.

Legacy

See also: History of Spain, History of Portugal, and Portugal in the period of discoveries

For a long time, many people thought of the Reconquista as a long struggle where Christian kingdoms in Spain fought against Muslim rulers. This idea became popular in the 19th century and was used to show that Spain was formed by fighting against Muslim influence. However, modern historians question this view, pointing out that eight centuries is too long for a single, continuous war.

Today, the idea of the Reconquista is still used in politics, sometimes to stir up feelings against Muslims. Festivals in Spain and Portugal called "Moors and Christians" celebrate this history with colorful parades and fireworks. The way land was taken during the Reconquista also affected Spain’s economy for many years.

Over time, the focus of these Christian kingdoms shifted to other places, like North Africa. The exploration of new lands by Europeans, such as Christopher Columbus’s journey to the Americas in 1492, happened after the last Muslim territory in Spain was taken. Unfortunately, the story of the Reconquista is sometimes still used today to support extreme political views.