Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe was a time when people started to look at the world in completely new ways. Before this, many ideas about nature came from old Greek thinkers, but now scientists began to use experiments and math to understand the universe. This change helped create the science we know today.

This important period began around 1543 when two big books were printed. De humani corporis fabrica by Andreas Vesalius changed how we learn about the human body, and De Revolutionibus by Nicolaus Copernicus suggested that Earth moves around the Sun instead of the other way around. Some people also say it started when a bright star, called the SN 1572 supernova, appeared in the sky.

The Scientific Revolution reached its peak in 1687 with the publication of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton. His book explained the laws of motion and gravity, shaping how scientists think about physics even today. This revolution laid the groundwork for modern science and changed how we explore and understand everything around us.

Terminology and periodisation

The word "revolution" has been used to describe big changes in science since the 1700s. Famous thinkers like Alexis Clairaut, William Whewell, and Herbert Butterfield helped make this term popular. They used it to talk about how people started to rely more on what they could see and measure, instead of just trusting old ideas.

Many people think the Scientific Revolution started in 1543 when important books by Andreas Vesalius and Nicolaus Copernicus were printed. Some also believe it began in 1572 when Tycho Brahe saw a bright new star, or ended with Isaac Newton’s big work in 1687. This period marked the start of what we now call modern science.

Significance

The Scientific Revolution in the 16th and 17th centuries changed how people understood the world. It transformed ideas in math, physics, astronomy, and biology, leading to the creation of modern sciences. Important figures like Galileo Galilei and Francis Bacon helped shape new ways of studying nature. Their work encouraged the formation of groups like the Royal Society to support scientific discovery. Many believe this period was one of the biggest changes in how humans see the universe.

Ancient, medieval and Renaissance background

Medieval Translations

Main article: Latin translations of the 12th century

The Scientific Revolution grew from translations of ancient Greek, Roman, and Islamic knowledge into Latin, beginning in the 10th century and growing strongly in the 12th and 13th centuries. These translations helped scholars across Europe share ideas and build new understanding.

By the 16th century, ideas from the ancient Greek thinker Aristotle were very influential in Europe. Aristotle believed Earth and the heavens were made of different materials, with Earth made of simple elements like earth, water, air, and fire. However, even then, some thinkers were beginning to question these old ideas. The work of earlier scholars laid the groundwork for later breakthroughs in science.

Christianity

Further information: Relationship between science and religion § Influence of a biblical worldview on early modern science

Many early scientists were deeply religious and believed studying the universe was a way to understand God's creation. They saw the order and beauty in nature as reflections of a perfect Creator. This belief helped encourage careful observation and the use of mathematics to describe the world.

Printing

Further information: Printing press § Circulation of information and ideas

The invention of the printing press in the 1440s by Johannes Gutenberg was key to the Scientific Revolution. Before printing, scientific books were rare and hard to share. Printing allowed scholars everywhere to read the same books and diagrams, compare notes, and build on each other's work. This made scientific knowledge more widespread and reliable.

Ptolemy Is Wrong

Further information: Waldseemüller map

When Europeans discovered the Americas in the late 15th century, it challenged older maps and ideas. The ancient Greek writer Claudius Ptolemy had not included the Americas in his maps, which were widely used at the time. This discovery showed that some old authorities might not have all the answers, encouraging explorers and scientists to look for new evidence.

The first modern science: astronomy

For thousands of years, people believed that the Earth was the center of the universe. This idea, called the geocentric model, said that Earth was special and different from the rest of space. But during the Scientific Revolution, this changed.

Nicolaus Copernicus suggested that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center of our solar system. This heliocentric model was new and surprising to many. Later, astronomers like Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei added important discoveries. Kepler showed that planets move in oval shapes, not perfect circles, around the Sun. Galileo used a telescope to see moons around Jupiter and other interesting details in space, which helped prove that Earth was not the center of everything. Finally, Isaac Newton used math to explain how objects move, both on Earth and in space, confirming that the Sun-centered view was correct.

Scientific method

Main article: Scientific method

The scientific method changed how people studied the world during the 17th century. Instead of just reading books or thinking about ideas, scientists began doing experiments and watching what happened. They used math to understand their observations and tried not to assume too much before doing their experiments. This new way of thinking was championed by famous thinkers like René Descartes, Galileo, and Bacon.

By the end of this time, the way people understood the world changed from reading books to doing experiments and using math. Even though modern science developed more in the 1800s, the ideas from this period still shape how we study the world today.

Empiricism

Main article: Empiricism

Before the Scientific Revolution, people mainly learned by observing nature and thinking about it. During this time, the idea grew that scientists should rely more on evidence from experiments and observations. Important thinkers like William of Ockham, Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, and David Hume helped develop this idea.

John Locke wrote about how our minds start like a blank tablet, learning from experiences. His book An Essay Concerning Human Understanding explained that true knowledge comes from what we can observe and experience.

Bacon's contributions

Francis Bacon helped lay the groundwork for the Scientific Revolution. He promoted a method called the Baconian method, which involves planning experiments to learn about nature. Bacon believed that by understanding nature, people could gain power over it and improve their lives. He wrote about the importance of inventions and how they could change the world.

Scientific experimentation

Bacon was one of the first to describe the experimental method. He believed that experiments should be planned carefully and used to test ideas. Galileo Galilei was another key figure. He combined experiments with math to understand how things move. Galileo showed that math was key to understanding the universe.

Mathematization

During this time, scientists began using math more to measure and understand the world. Galileo believed that math was certain and could help us understand the universe. François Viète and René Descartes improved algebra, and Newton developed calculus, which helped apply math to science.

Mechanical philosophy

Before the Scientific Revolution, people often thought about nature having purposes, like a plant growing to become a tree. During this time, scientists began to see nature more like machines, with things moving because of direct contact rather than purposes. Newton's ideas about gravity were sometimes seen as going against this, but they still influenced how people thought about the world.

Institutionalization

The first scientific societies began forming during this time. The Royal Society of London was founded in 1660. It met to discuss new discoveries and perform experiments. The society began publishing Philosophical Transactions in 1665, which is the world's oldest scientific journal. France also established the Academy of Sciences in 1666, founded by the government.

New ideas

Newton developed the theory of gravitation. He began studying how gravity affects the paths of planets, inspired by letters he exchanged with another scientist. Later, observing a comet helped him further. Newton proved that planets move in oval paths because of a force that gets weaker with distance. He shared these ideas in a paper and later expanded them into a famous book.

In the 1600s, doctors made big steps in understanding the body. One doctor carefully studied how the heart and blood vessels work. He showed that blood moves in a circle, not just back and forth as people once thought.

Scientists also explored chemicals and materials. They tried to understand how different substances change and mix. One scientist famous for his work said that all theories should be tested through experiments. He also helped separate chemistry from older, mystical ideas, making it a proper science.

Some scientists studied light and how we see. They learned about how light bends when it passes through different things and how small things look under very strong magnifying glasses.

Mechanical devices

Many useful tools were created during this time to help scientists explore and understand the world better.

Calculating devices

John Napier created logarithms, a smart way to make math easier and faster. Blaise Pascal made the first mechanical calculator called the Pascaline in 1642, which helped people do math by hand. Later, Gottfried Leibniz improved these ideas and created new tools for calculation.

Industrial machines

Denis Papin invented an early version of the steam engine called the steam digester. This idea was later used to power machines and help move water from mines. Abraham Darby I found a better way to make iron using coke instead of charcoal, which was very important for building stronger tools and machines.

Telescopes

The first refracting telescopes were made in the Netherlands in 1608. Galileo used one to look at the stars and planets. Later, Isaac Newton built the first reflecting telescope in 1668, which used mirrors instead of lenses to see clearly.

Other devices

Scientists also made a vacuum pump to create empty spaces without air. This helped Robert Boyle and others learn about air and pressure. Evangelista Torricelli invented the barometer in 1643 to measure air pressure using mercury.

Criticism

Historians still discuss whether the Scientific Revolution was a big change or just a continuation of older ideas. Some believe there was no true revolution, just a natural progression from the Renaissance, and that the discoveries of the time were really just rediscoveries of ancient Greek thinking.

Others suggest that the Scientific Revolution was influenced by ideas from non-Western cultures, including Arabic optics, Indian mathematics, and Chinese mechanical technologies. Recent studies also point out that women often played important roles in science during this time, even though they were often left out of official records.