Archaeology

Archaeology is the study of human activity by looking at things people made and used long ago. Archaeologists look at old objects, buildings, places, and natural materials to learn about the past. They use these clues to understand how people lived and what they believed.

This field is important because it helps us learn about times when people did not write things down. Most of human history happened before writing existed, and archaeology helps us explore those ancient days. Archaeologists study things from the first stone tools made in East Africa to more recent history.

Archaeology began in Europe in the 1800s and has grown into a worldwide activity. Different kinds of archaeology have developed, like studying shipwrecks or looking at how ancient people understood the stars.

History

Main article: History of archaeology

First instances of archaeology

Long ago, people started learning about the past by looking at things they found. King Nabonidus, who lived around 550 BC, is one of the earliest examples. He looked for old items left by rulers like Naram-Sin of Akkad, who ruled around 2200 BC. Nabonidus tried to find out when these items were made.

Antiquarians

The study of old things grew from a love of learning about the past. People called antiquarians looked at old objects, writings, and places to understand history. They focused on facts rather than just ideas. This way of thinking became more organized in Europe during the 1600s and 1700s.

In China, during the Song dynasty (960–1279), scholars such as Ouyang Xiu and Zhao Mingcheng studied and saved old writings carved on bronze. In Europe, during a time called the Renaissance, people became very interested in learning about ancient Greek and Roman cultures.

First excavations

Some of the first places to be dug up by scientists were Stonehenge and other large stone structures in England. John Aubrey was one of the first to carefully write down what he saw there in the 1600s. Later, in the 1700s, people began digging in the ancient cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, which were covered by ash from a volcano. Finding whole towns, along with everyday items, amazed many people in Europe.

Development of archaeological method

In the 1800s, William Cunnington began careful digging in England, writing down what he found. Future President Thomas Jefferson also dug up old mounds built by Native Americans in Virginia, trying to learn who made them.

One big step was learning to use layers of soil to figure out the order of old things. This idea came from studying rocks and fossils. Scientists like Augustus Pitt Rivers and William Flinders Petrie helped make archaeology more scientific. They wrote down every item and sorted them by type and time.

Famous digs, like at the site believed to be ancient Troy, showed how many cities had been built in the same place over time. As archaeology grew, it became a job people could study in schools. New kinds of archaeology, like studying ships and cities, also developed.

Purpose

The purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies and how humans developed. Most of human history happened before people could write, so we have no written records to study. This means archaeology is our main way to understand these early times. Archaeology studies things like old tools, buildings, and other objects to learn about how people lived long ago.

Archaeology helps us understand important events in human history, such as how people first learned to use fire, make tools, and grow crops. It also helps us learn about ancient societies that had writing, like Ancient Greece and Mesopotamia, by studying objects they left behind. These objects can tell us about everyday life, even for people who were not rich or powerful, which written records often do not include.

Theory

Main article: Archaeological theory

Over time, different ideas about how to study archaeology have developed. In the past, many archaeologists focused on describing how cultures changed over time. Later, some archaeologists wanted to use scientific methods to test ideas and understand why changes happened. More recently, other archaeologists have emphasized being more self-aware and critical in their studies. Today, archaeology draws on many different ideas and theories to better understand the past.

Methods

An archaeological investigation usually has several steps. First, archaeologists decide what they want to find. Then, they survey a site to learn more about it. Next, they might dig to uncover hidden features. Finally, they study what they found to answer their questions. It is good to share what they learn so others can benefit.

Remote sensing

Before digging, remote sensing can help find where sites are. There are two types of remote sensing tools—passive and active. Passive tools detect natural energy from objects. Active tools send out energy and record it. Satellite imagery is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are three active remote sensing tools:

• Lidar: Lidar uses a laser to send out light and measures the reflections to find distances. Lidars can also study the air.

• Laser altimeter: This tool uses lidar to measure its height above the ground, helping to see the land below.

• Drones: Archaeologists use drones to make surveys faster and protect sites. In Peru, drones helped make 3D models of sites quicker than old methods. Drones have been used to map sites like the Greek city of Aphrodisias.

Field survey

Main article: Archaeological survey

The next step is a field survey, which helps find unknown sites or features like houses. Surveys were not common at first but became important later. They save time and money because they do not need to dig up lots of soil. They also avoid problems related to destroying a site. Surveys can show how people lived and make maps of what is on the surface.

The simplest survey is a surface survey, where researchers walk over an area to look for visible features or artifacts. This cannot find buried sites. Surface surveys may also use small digs like augers or shovel test pits. If nothing is found, the area is considered sterile.

Aerial survey uses cameras on airplanes, balloons, UAVs, or Kites to see sites from above. Aerial photos can show changes in plants that hint at hidden structures. Different lighting can also show hidden outlines. Aerial surveys use tools like ultraviolet, infrared, ground-penetrating radar, Lidar, and thermography.

Geophysical survey can see under the ground using tools that detect changes in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron objects or stone structures. Other tools measure the electrical resistivity of soil to find archaeological features.

Although some think using metal detectors is like treasure hunting, others find them useful in archaeology. They have been used to study battlefields, ship wrecks, and locate cables. In the UK, metal detector users help archaeology by sharing what they find.

Regional survey in underwater archaeology uses tools like a marine magnetometer, side-scan sonar, or sub-bottom sonar.

Excavation

Main article: Archaeological excavation

Archaeological excavation has been a main way to learn about the past. It can show information that surveys cannot, like layers of buildings and structures.

Modern excavation needs careful recording of where objects and features are found, known as their provenance. This includes their horizontal and sometimes vertical positions, as well as what is near them. This helps archaeologists understand which items were used together and from different times. For example, excavation shows layers of buildings, with newer items above older ones.

Excavation is expensive and changes the site, so only a small part is usually dug up. Sampling is important here. Large machines like backhoes may be used to remove top soil, but this is done carefully. The area is then cleaned by hand to make sure all features are visible.

The next step is to make a site plan to decide how to dig. Features dug into the natural soil are dug in sections to record their shape. Each feature, like a pit or ditch, has a cut (the edge where it meets the soil) and a fill (what it is filled with). These are numbered for records. Plans, photos, and recording sheets are made to document everything.

Analysis

Main article: Post-excavation analysis

After artifacts and structures are dug up or collected, they need to be studied. This is called post-excavation analysis and often takes the most time. Artifacts are cleaned, listed, and compared to other collections. They can also be dated and their materials examined using science.

Bones, plants, and pollen from a site can be studied using zooarchaeology, paleoethnobotany, palynology, and stable isotopes. Any texts found can usually be deciphered.

These methods often reveal new information that helps us understand the site better.

Subfields

Main article: Subfields of archaeology

Archaeology has many different areas of study. These can focus on special ways of studying old objects, places in certain parts of the world, or from certain times. Some areas focus on particular cultures or civilizations, like the study of ancient Egypt or China.

Historical archaeology

Main article: Historical archaeology

Historical archaeology looks at cultures that had writing. It studies objects and questions from the past. Archaeologists have studied old burial places in Europe and remains from old cities in New York.

Ethnoarchaeology

Main article: Ethnoarchaeology

Ethnoarchaeology studies how people live today to help us understand ancient people. This way of studying became important in the 1960s and is still used today. It looks at many kinds of human behavior, not just hunter-gatherer societies.

Experimental archaeology

Main article: Experimental archaeology

Experimental archaeology uses experiments to learn more about how things happened in the past. This helps make archaeological studies more scientific. Experiments are important for understanding old processes better.

Archaeometry

Main article: Archaeological science

Archaeometry is about measuring things in archaeology. It uses science and engineering to study old objects. This can include looking at the chemical makeup of old items or using computer tools to study old places.

Digital archaeology

Main article: Digital archeology

See also: Computational archaeology and Virtual archaeology

Digital archaeology uses computers and technology to study old places and things. This can include making 3D models of ancient sites or using computers to understand how people lived long ago.

Cultural resources management

Main article: Cultural resource management

Archaeology is often part of managing cultural resources. This means looking after important historical places, especially when new buildings or roads might affect them. In the US, laws help protect these places. In the UK, similar rules make sure archaeologists check areas before building starts. This work helps save important history from being lost when new projects are built.

Protection

The protection of important old objects for everyone is becoming more common around the world. This is done through international agreements and groups that watch over and help protect these places. The United Nations, UNESCO, and Blue Shield International work to protect cultural places, including old sites important to history.

These old places are important for people's sense of belonging, for tourism, and for helping communities grow. During a mission in Lebanon, the leader of Blue Shield International explained that when culture is destroyed, it takes away people's sense of who they are.

Popular views of archaeology

Early archaeology was about finding special objects and exploring old, empty cities. It was mostly done by rich, educated men, which changed how many people think about archaeology today. Many still see archaeologists as adventurers, more like hobbyists than serious scientists. Movies and stories often show archaeologists in faraway lands, looking for valuable treasures, which isn’t the whole story.

In reality, archaeologists do important work all over the world, not just in exciting places like Copán and the Valley of the Kings. Much of their time is spent on careful surveys, excavations, and looking at data, which isn’t always exciting. Because of these misunderstandings, some call these wrong ideas "pseudoarchaeology." Archaeologists need support from the public, and they often talk about who their work is really for.

Current issues and controversy

Public archaeology

Archaeologists work to protect important places from being damaged or lost. They teach people why these places matter and help everyone understand the past better. They share their discoveries through schools, videos, and websites so more people can learn.

Archaeologists know that many people are interested in learning about history. They work with communities, schools, and even volunteers to help everyone take part in discovering the past. Some programs let people help with real excavations under the guidance of experts.

Pseudoarchaeology

Some people create stories that sound like archaeology but are not based on real evidence or science. These ideas often ignore facts and use theories that cannot be proven. One famous example is the idea that ancient astronauts visited Earth long ago, which is not supported by real archaeological research.

Looting

Looting hurts our chances to learn about the past. When people take artifacts from archaeological sites without care, they damage the sites and destroy important information. This is especially hard for communities who lose touch with their history. Laws and efforts are in place to stop looting and protect these valuable sites.

Descendant peoples

Working with communities whose ancestors lived at archaeological sites is very important. Sometimes, these communities have special feelings about certain places, like burial grounds, that archaeologists need to respect. Laws like the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act help ensure that these communities have a say in what happens to their ancestors' remains and artifacts.

African diaspora archaeology

Studying the history of people who were forced away from their homes during the slave trades is a special part of archaeology. This work helps us understand the experiences of these communities and their descendants. It also highlights the need to include these communities in decisions about their history and heritage.

Climate change and archaeology

Climate change can affect archaeological sites in many ways, such as changing weather patterns or melting ice. These changes can damage sites or even create new discoveries, like artifacts hidden in ice for centuries. Archaeologists help society understand and prepare for these changes.

AI in archaeology

New technology, like artificial intelligence, is being used to help archaeologists. For example, AI can help find hidden sites or translate old texts. However, it’s important to use these tools carefully to avoid oversimplifying complex information or repeating old, incorrect ideas.