Assam

Assam is a beautiful state in northeastern India. It sits south of the Eastern Himalayas between the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. It is the second largest state in northeastern India by area and the largest by population.

Assam shares borders with Bhutan to the north, Bangladesh to the southwest, and several other Indian states, including West Bengal, Meghalaya, and Manipur.

The history of Assam is very old. People lived there as far back as the second century BCE. Many different groups ruled the area over the centuries. The Ahom kingdom lasted from the 13th to the early 19th century. In the 1800s, the British began growing tea there. Assam became a separate province in 1912.

Today, Assam is famous for its tea and silk. The state also has important natural resources like oil, which was first found there in 1867. Assam is home to wonderful wildlife, including the famous one-horned Indian rhinoceros. It has beautiful places like Kaziranga and Manas National Parks, which are World Heritage Sites. The many forests, grasslands, and wetlands make Assam a rich and diverse place to live.

Etymology

Main article: Etymology of Assam

Old writings from the 1st and 2nd centuries mention the area now called Assam. These texts call the region Kirrhadia, likely after the local Kirata people. Later, from ancient kingdoms until the 12th century, the land east of the Karatoya River — much of what is now Assam — was known as Kamarupa or Pragjyotisha. Over time, the area became commonly called Assam, especially under the rule of the Ahom kingdom and later the British. The name Assam is linked to the Ahom people, who were originally known as Shyam.

History

Main article: History of Assam

Pre-history

Further information: People of Assam

Assam and nearby areas show signs of human settlement from the Stone Age. Hills between 1,500 to 2,000 feet were favorite homes because they had tools made from a special rock. The Ambari site in Guwahati has old items from around the 1st century BCE, maybe 2,000 years old. Guwahati, once called Pragjyotishpur, is mentioned in old stories, but we don’t have much proof of its early history before the 7th century AD.

Legend

Further information: Danava dynasty, Bhauma dynasty, and Asura kingdom

An old story says the first ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danava of the Danava dynasty. He was removed by Narakasura of Mithila, who started the Bhauma dynasty. The last of these rulers was also Narakasura, killed by Krishna. His son Bhagadatta became king and fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurukshetra with soldiers from kiratas, chinas, and people from the eastern coast. Around the same time, the Asura kingdom was ruled by another group of kings in central Assam.

Ancient era

Further information: Kamarupa

There is proof of civilization in Assam around the 2nd century BCE. A place called Sri Surya Pahar has old structures from 200 BCE, similar to ones in Maharashtra. Samudragupta’s inscription from the 4th century CE mentions Kamarupa and Davaka as parts of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later taken over by Kamarupa, which grew into a big kingdom covering areas from the Karatoya River to near Sadiya, including the Brahmaputra Valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh, and sometimes Purnea and West Bengal. The kingdom had three dynasties—the Varmanas, the Mlechchha dynasty, and the Kamarupa-Palas—all claiming to come from Narakasura. Chinese traveler Xuanzang visited during the Varman king Bhaskaravarman’s time. After the Kamarupa-Palas weakened, the kingdom lasted until around 1255 CE under later dynasties.

Medieval era

Further information: Kamata kingdom, Koch dynasty, Ahom kingdom, Chutia kingdom, Kachari kingdom, and Baro-Bhuyan

Medieval Assam history began with the Ahoms in the early 13th century and lasted 600 years until 1826. After a war, the Khen dynasty ended, and Alauddin Hussain Shah declared himself ruler of Kamarup and Kamata. This period is known for conflicts with Muslim powers, ending in Assamese victory, but later faced Burmese invasions leading to annexation.

Chutia kingdom

Chutia, from the Bodo-Kachari group, controlled areas on both sides of the Brahmaputra in Upper Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. It was taken over by the Ahoms in 1524. Rivalry between Chutias and Ahoms caused several conflicts from the early 16th century.

Kachari kingdom

Main article: Kachari kingdom

The Dimasa, a Bodo-Kachari dynasty ruling from the 13th century until 1854, controlled areas from the Dikhow River to central and southern Assam, with their capital at Dimapur. By the early 17th century, Ahom expansion took over Chutia areas, and by 1536, the Kacharis were limited to Cachar and North Cachar, becoming allies rather than rivals.

Ahom kingdom

Early period

Main article: Sukaphaa

The Ahoms, a Tai group, ruled Upper Assam for almost 600 years. In 1228, they came to the Brahmaputra Valley under Sukapha with 9,000 men from Mong Mao in Yunnan, China, establishing their kingdom in Upper Assam. In 1253, Sukapha founded his capital at Charaideo. For over two and a half centuries, Sukapha and his descendants focused on ruling while keeping control through their military.

Expansion

Main articles: Suhungmung and Dimasa kingdom

Suhungmung started the big expansion of the Ahom kingdom. They fought many battles with Bhuyans, Chutias, Kacharis, Turko-Afghans, and the Naras. In 1522–23, the Chutia kingdom was taken over. Suhungmung also expanded west to Marangi beyond the Dhansiri River. When the Kacharis tried to take back land, they were defeated, and their capital Dimapur was destroyed. A new king, Detsung, was placed but later revolted and was executed. A new dependent king, Nirbhaynarayan, was put on the Kachari throne.

Suhungmung’s time also saw the first attacks by Muslim forces, who were defeated and pushed back to the Karatoya River. The Sultan of Bengal made peace with Suhungmung. The rising Koch king Biswa Singha also agreed to pay tribute.

The successors of Suhungmung, Suklenmung and Sukhaamphaa, fought wars with the Koch. During Sukhaamphaa’s time, the Ahoms lost to Koch leader Chilarai but later took back the lost land.

Later Period

War with Mughals

Main articles: Ahom kingdom, Bengal Subah, Koch dynasty, and Ahom–Mughal conflicts

After Nara Narayan’s death, his kingdom split into Koch Hajo and Koch Bihar. In 1609, Cooch Behar’s king Laxmi Narayan accepted Mughal control, and Koch Hajo’s king Raghudev sought help from the Ahoms. In 1612, the Mughals attacked Koch Hajo, taking land up to the Barnadi River. This brought the Mughals into contact with the Ahoms. Later, Parikshit died on his way to his kingdom, and Balinarayan was made king of Darrang in 1615 by the Ahom king Pratap Singha. From 1616, many battles were fought with the Mughals. The treaty in 1639 set the border between the two.

Pratap Singha created new administration posts. Jayadhwaj Singha took advantage of a succession dispute to take imperial lands up to Dhaka. Aurangzeb sent Mir Jumla II to retake the land. After hard fighting and losses, the Ahoms lost their capital Garhgaon. Mir Jumla’s army suffered in the rainy season, and after no gains, peace was made in 1663. The Ahoms agreed to Mughal supremacy, giving up land and handing over hostages. After Mir Jumla left, Jayadhwaj Singha died, and Chakradhwaj Singha prepared to push back the Mughals. After many battles, the Mughals were forced to retreat at the Battle of Saraighat.

After 1671, there was instability from nobles wanting power. In 1679, Laluksola Borphukan gave up Guwahati without a fight, hoping to become king with Mughal help. But after Gadadhar Singha became king, the Mughals were defeated at the Battle of Itakhuli. The border was set at Manah on the north bank and Nagarbera hill on the south bank of the Brahmaputra until the East India Company took it in 1826.

18th century

See also: Rudra Singha, Siva Singha, and Moamoria rebellion

Rudra Singha succeeded Gadadhar Singha and is known for his military successes and cultural work. He fought Kachari and Jaintia kingdoms and prepared to invade Bengal but died suddenly in 1714.

After Rudra Singha, the Ahoms had no major military wins. From Siva Singha to Rajeswar Singha, the kingdom had peace and growth. The Ekasarana Dharma religion spread, and Vaisnavite monasteries gained power with royal support, building many Satras. The Ahom court was influenced by Sakta Brahman priests. Religious conflicts and pressure from the Paik system led to the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), weakening the Ahom kingdom. Political fights invited Burmese invasions, leading to annexation.

Colonial era

Religious tensions and actions by nobles caused the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), leading to many deaths and damage. The rebellion was stopped, but the kingdom was weak. Fights between Prime Minister Purnananda Burhagohain and Badan Chandra Borphukan brought in the Burmese, who invaded three times. King Chandrakanta Singha fought but was defeated, leading to Burmese rule.

The Burmese treated people harshly, causing many to flee. They reached the East India Company’s border, starting the First Anglo-Burmese War in 1824. The war ended with the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, giving the Company control of Western Assam and installing Purandar Singha as king of Upper Assam in 1833. This lasted until 1838, after which the British took over the whole area. Bengali became the court and school language, which hurt Assamese unemployment and literature from 1836 to 1873.

Tea growing began in Assam in 1834, tested in 1836–37 in London. Companies could rent land from 1839. Tea farms grew in Eastern Assam. Problems with workers from China and local Assamese led to forced labor from central and eastern India. By the 1850s, tea became profitable. New technologies helped in the 1870s.

Tea workers faced bad conditions. The Indian Tea Association formed in 1888 to avoid government rules. Even after India’s independence, conditions didn’t improve much.

The Assam Postage Circle started in 1873.

Assam was first part of Bengal Presidency, then Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1906, and became a chief commissioners' province in 1912. Legislative councils and the Assam Legislative Assembly were formed in Shillong.

The Assam territory became separate from Bengal in 1874 as the North-East Frontier non-regulation province, known as Assam Chief-Commissionership. It was part of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 and re-established in 1912 as Assam Province.

At the start of the 20th century, Assam was one of the eight provinces of British India.

After early attempts, Assamese people joined the Indian National Congress against the British from the early 1900s, with Gopinath Bordoloi as a main leader. His rival was Sir Saidullah from the Muslim League, backed by Maulana Bhasani.

After India’s partition in 1947, Assam became part of India. Sylhet District, except Karimganj subdivision, went to East Pakistan, which later became Bangladesh.

Modern history

See also: Undivided Assam and Assam separatist movements

Separatist groups formed along ethnic lines, leading to demands for autonomy and sovereignty, splitting Assam. In 1961, Assam made Assamese language compulsory but later withdrew it. India divided Assam into several states: Nagaland in 1963, Meghalaya in 1972, and Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram in 1972 (states in 1986). Since then, tensions and violence continued.

In the 1980s, the Brahmaputra Valley had a six-year movement against foreign migrants from Bangladesh, ending with the Assam Accord of 1985, which wasn’t fully carried out.

Since the 1970s, armed groups like the United Liberation Front of Asom and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland formed. In 1990, the Indian army was sent in, leading to ongoing conflicts. Ethnic-based militant groups have grown. The Panchayati Raj Act was applied after communities asked for better development.

Geography

Main article: Physical geography of Assam

See also: Tourism in North East India

Assam is a beautiful state in northeastern India. It is between big rivers and hills. The Brahmaputra River flows through Assam and sometimes floods the area. This river is very old and has shaped the land for many years.

Assam also has many hills and valleys. The Barak River flows through the south part of Assam. Big cities in Assam include Guwahati, which is growing fast, and Silchar, an important business center.

Climate

With the tropical monsoon climate, Assam has warm summers and cool winters. The summers can be very hot, up to about 95–100 °F (35–38 °C), and winters are cool, with lows around 43–46 °F (6–8 °C). Assam gets a lot of rain and the air is often very humid. The rain helps keep the summers cooler and can make mornings and nights foggy in winter. Spring (March–April) and autumn (September–October) are usually nice and warm with less rain. Assam’s farming depends on the rainy season.

Fauna

See also: Biodiversity of Assam

Assam is home to many different animals and plants. It has special parks like Kaziranga National Park, where you can see rare Indian rhinos. The park also protects many other animals, including tigers, elephants, and many kinds of birds. Assam has many forests and wetlands that are important for wildlife.

Flora

Assam has many beautiful flowers, especially orchids. The Foxtail orchid is the state flower. There is a special park for orchids where you can see over 500 different kinds.

Geology

Assam has important natural resources like oil, natural gas, and coal. The land can sometimes shake a little from earthquakes, but these are usually not very strong. Big earthquakes happened long ago, but today they are rare.

Demographics

Population

The population of Assam was 26.66 million in 2001. By 2011, it had grown to 31.17 million and is expected to reach about 35.6 million by 2026.

In 2011, the literacy rate was 73.18%. Most people lived in districts such as Kamrup, Nagaon, Sonitpur, Barpeta, Dhubri, Darrang, and Cachar.

The People of India project studied many ethnic groups in Assam. Many people speak different languages, including Austroasiatic, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, Indo-Aryan, and Tai–Kadai languages.

According to a report, Byrnihat is one of the most polluted cities in India.

Religions

See also: Hinduism in Assam, Islam in Assam, Christianity in Assam, and Ahom religion

In 2011, most people in Assam were Hindus (61.5%), followed by followers of Islam (34.2%), and smaller groups such as Christians, Buddhists, and others.

The three main paths of Hinduism, Shaivisim, Shaktism, and Vaishnavism, are common here. Many Assamese Hindus follow the Ekasarana Dharma path.

Languages

See also: Assamese language, Assamese literature, Bengali language, Bodo language, and Meitei language in Assam

In 2011, the main languages were Assamese (48.4%), Bengali (28.9%), and Bodo (4.51%). Assamese and Bodo are official languages of the state.

Assamese is widely spoken, especially in the Brahmaputra Valley. Bengali is common in the Barak Valley. Other languages include Hindi, Sadri, Mishing, Nepali, and Karbi.

Traditionally, Assamese was used in ancient kingdoms. It has unique sounds that set it apart from other languages.

Bodo is an official language in the Bodoland region and is one of the languages listed in the Constitution of India.

There are also speakers of Nepali, Tai languages, Kurukh, and Khasi in Assam.

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Assam and Politics of Assam

Dispur, in the Guwahati area, is the capital of Assam. Dibrugarh will become the second capital in 2027. Assam has one legislative house with 126 members. The government is led by the governor and the Chief Minister of Assam.

The state has five main regions, divided into 35 districts based on geography.

In 2015, five new districts were created. In 2016, an island in the Brahmaputra River became Majuli district, India’s first river island district. In 2021, Bajali became a district.

Assam has three autonomous councils, including the Bodoland Autonomous Territorial Council, Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council, and Dima Hasao Autonomous Council. There are also other councils for different communities.

Since 1950, Assam was mainly governed by the Indian National Congress until 2016. In 2016, the Bharatiya Janata Party won elections and formed the government, with Sarbananda Sonowal as chief minister. The BJP was re-elected in 2021 under Himanta Biswa Sarma.

Disputes and social issues

Inter-state dispute

Assam has border disputes with four states: Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh. These disputes happen because the borders were not clearly marked a long time ago.

Assam-Mizoram dispute

Mizoram used to be a part of Assam called the Lushai hills. Later, it became a separate state in 1987. Because of this history, the borders between Mizoram and Assam’s districts like Cachar, Hailakandi, and Karimganj are disputed.

Assam-Meghalaya dispute

Meghalaya has identified areas where it disagrees with Assam about the borders. The leaders of both states have met to discuss these disputes.

Assam-Nagaland dispute

The dispute between Assam and Nagaland started when Nagaland became a state in 1963. Both states claim a small village near Assam’s Golaghat district.

Assam-Arunachal Pradesh dispute

Assam shares a long border with Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal Pradesh claims some lands that Assam says belong to it. The two states are still fighting this in court.

Separate statehood demand within Assam

Ahomland

Groups in Upper Assam have been asking for a separate state called Ahomland since 1967.

Barak state

Main article: Barak state movement

People in the Barak Valley have been asking for their own state called Barak state. They feel this area is left behind in development compared to other parts of Assam. Silchar would be the capital of this new state.

Bodoland

Main article: Bodoland

An agreement was made in 2003 to create the Bodoland Territorial Council. This council governs four districts with many Bodo Kachari people.

Dimaraji

Main article: Dimaraji

The Dimasa people want a separate state called Dimaraji or “Dimaland.” This would include areas where they live.

Karbiland

See also: Karbi Anglong

Karbi Anglong is a district in Assam. The Karbi people there have been asking for their own state for many years.

Migration from Bangladesh

Assam has seen many people moving in from what is now Bangladesh since the 1940s. These people came because of big changes in the area. Many settled in Assam and made it their home.

There is also a lot of movement between Assam and nearby parts of Bangladesh because the border is easy to cross. This movement causes problems for Assam’s economy and safety. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, groups in Assam asked the government to stop more people from coming in.

Floods

Main article: Brahmaputra floods

Every rainy season, rivers like the Brahmaputra overflow and flood nearby land. This washes away homes, animals, and crops. It also damages bridges, roads, and railways.

Unemployment

Unemployment is a big problem in Assam. People say it is because of poor roads and buildings, not enough connection to other places, and government choices.

Education

Main article: Education in Assam

See also: List of colleges affiliated to Gauhati University

See also: List of colleges affiliated to Assam University

See also: List of educational institutions in Assam

Assam has many schools, universities, and colleges. Important universities include Assam University, Gauhati University, and Indian Institute of Technology in Guwahati. There are also medical colleges like Assam Medical College and Gauhati Medical College and Hospital.

The state has engineering colleges such as Indian Institute of Technology and National Institute of Technology, Silchar. Many places in Assam offer chances to learn and grow through education.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Assam

Assam's economy is mostly based on farming and oil. The state makes more than half of India's tea. It also has a lot of oil, with about a quarter of the country's oil reserves.

Unemployment is a big problem in Assam. Many students finish school but can't find jobs because there aren't enough positions. Farming is very important in Assam, providing most of the state's income. The state grows many crops, including rice, tea, and vegetables. However, farming can be difficult because floods from the rivers often damage crops.

Assam has some industries, like making tea, oil, and handicrafts. The state also has good connections for trade with nearby countries. Cities like Guwahati are important for transportation and business.

Macro-economy

Between 1951 and 1979, Assam grew at an average level compared to the rest of India. But after 1979, growth slowed down. Since the 2000s, growth has improved.

Tea plantations

Employment

Unemployment is a major issue in Assam. Many young people finish school but can't find jobs. Illegal immigration has made unemployment worse. The government is trying to address this, but it's a big challenge.

Agriculture

Assam’s economy relies heavily on farming, which provides most of the state’s income. The state is famous for its tea. Other crops include rice, rapeseed, mustard seed, jute, potatoes, sweet potatoes, bananas, papaya, areca nut, sugarcane, and turmeric.

Farming in Assam can be difficult because floods from rivers often damage crops and fields.

See also: 2016 Assam floods

Infrastructure

On 30 August 2023, Maligaon Flyover was inaugurated. It is Assam’s longest flyover, stretching 2.63 kilometres and connecting Maligaon Chariali to Kamakhya Gate in Guwahati.

Industry

Traditional industries like handloom weaving and handicrafts are still important. Assam’s location near countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan helps its trade. Important border crossings for trade with Bangladesh include Sutarkandi, Dhubri, Mankachar, and Golokanj.

The government of India has focused on several areas for industrial growth in Assam, such as oil and natural gas industries, farming-based industries, food processing, and technology industries. Assam produces crude oil, making up about 15% of India’s total output. Oil was first found in Makum in 1867, and the first refinery in Asia was built in Digboi.

Other industries include chemical plants, paper mills, sugar mills, cement plants, and cosmetics. However, many of these industries struggle because of poor infrastructure.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Assam

See also: Tourism in North East India

Assam attracts visitors with its wildlife, culture, and history.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Assam

See also: Assamese cinema

Assamese Culture is a mix of traditions from many groups of people. It includes ideas from Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman, Indo-aryan and Tai people. This mix created a special local culture.

Important times in Assam's culture include when many kingdoms ruled, like Kamarupa, Chutia, Ahom, Koch and Kachari. The Neo-Vaishanavite Movement led by Srimanta Shankardeva helped shape Assam's culture. It created important places like namghar and sattra.

Today, Assam's culture is rich and growing, with many groups keeping their traditions alive.

Symbols

See also: List of Assam state symbols and Jaapi

Symbols are important in Assamese culture. Items like Tamulpan (areca nut and betel leaves), Xorai (a special bell) and Gamosa (a woven cloth) show respect and friendship. These symbols come from old traditions and are still used today.

Other symbols like the Assamese-lion are used in art to show pride.

Festivals and traditions

Main article: List of festivals in Assam

See also: Domahi, Bohag Bihu, Magh Bihu, and Bwisagu

Assam has many colorful festivals. The most important is Bihu, celebrated in three ways:

• Rongali Bihu in spring, marking the start of farming.
• Kongali Bihu when fields are green.
• Bhogali Bihu in winter, giving thanks for the harvest.

Bihu includes special songs and dances. Another big festival is Bwisagu, celebrated by the Bodos to welcome the new year. Other festivals honor ancestors.

Music, dance, and drama

See also: Music of Assam, Folk dances of Assam, and Mobile theatre in Assam

Assam has many traditional dances and music. Some include:

• Sattriya Dance, a classical dance.
• Bodo dance Bagurumba.
• Jhumair dance in tea gardens.
• Bihu dance

Famous musicians from Assam include Bhupen Hazarika and Zubeen Garg. Mobile theatre is also popular.

Cuisine

A typical Assamese meal includes rice, lentils, fish stew, and stir-fried greens or vegetables. Special flavors come from khar and tenga. Common meats are mutton, fowl, duck, fish, pigeon, pork, and beef. Traditional drinks are enjoyed during festivals.

Literature

Assamese literature has deep roots, with early works like Charyapada and Saptakanda Ramayana. Important writers helped shape the literature. In later years, many authors modernised it.

Fine arts

Main article: Painting of Assam

Assam has a long history of art. Ancient stupas and manuscripts show early traditions. Painting is an old tradition, with examples from manuscripts like Hastividyarnava.

Traditional crafts

Main articles: Traditional crafts of Assam and Bell and brass metal crafts of Assam

See also: Assam silk

Assam is known for its crafts, including cane and bamboo work, bell metal and brass items, silk and cotton weaving, toy and mask making, pottery, and wood craft. Traditional silk types like Muga and Pat are famous. Many households still produce beautiful silk and cotton garments.

Media

Assam has many newspapers, including Assamese dailies like Amar Asom, Asomiya Khabar, and Asomiya Pratidin. There are also English dailies such as The Assam Tribune and The Sentinel.

The state has broadcasting stations run by All India Radio in 22 cities, with local news and music. There are public service channels from Doordarshan in Dibrugarh, Guwahati, and Silchar. Satellite news channels like Assam Talks and DY 365 are based in Guwahati.

Geographical indications

Boka Chaul

Boka Chaul got a special label called Geographical Indication (GI) status on 30 July 2018. This label helps protect the rice. It makes sure only rice grown in its special area can be called "Boka Chaul." This rice is now the second type of rice from Assam to have this label. The label gives the rice legal protection and a special identity.