Duchy of Croatia

The Duchy of Croatia was a medieval state formed by the White Croats who moved into the area of the former Roman province of Dalmatia around the 7th century AD. It had important centers like Klis, Solin, Knin, Bijaći, and Nin. The Duchy covered coastal areas of what is now Croatia, except for Istria, and also included much of the mountainous inland region.

The Croats settled in Dalmatia after defeating the Pannonian Avars. The Duchy was sometimes under the control of powerful neighbours like the Byzantine Empire and the Carolingian Empire. In the 9th century, Croatia began to rival Venice. Croatia also faced battles with the Bulgarian Empire and the Arabs.

Sometimes, Croatia was under the control of the Franks or the Byzantines, but other times it was independent. In 879, Duke Branimir was recognized as an independent ruler by Pope John VIII. From 845 to 1091, the Duchy was ruled by the Trpimirović and Domagojević dynasties. Around 925, under Tomislav, Croatia grew strong enough to become a kingdom.

Nomenclature

"Dalmatian Croatia" and "Littoral Croatia" are names historians use today for the Duchy. It is sometimes called the "Principality of Croatia." The earliest known name for the Duchy was "Land of the Croats" in the year 852. At this time, Croatia was not yet a kingdom.

In old records, the area was often just called "Croatia." The first known duke, Borna, was called "Duke of Dalmatia" and later "Duke of Dalmatia and Liburnia." The Croatian name appears in old documents from Croatian dukes in the 9th century. Trpimir I was called "Duke of the Croats" in a Latin document from 852, and Branimir was also called "Duke of the Croats" on an inscription near Benkovac.

Geography

The Duchy of Croatia was near the Adriatic coast, in a place once ruled by the Romans called Dalmatia. It reached from the coast inland to parts of western Herzegovina and Bosnia, including areas like Lika, Gacka, and Krbava. To the northwest, it went to Vinodol and Labin in the Croatian Littoral.

Some coastal cities such as Split, Zadar, Kotor, and Dubrovnik were ruled by the Byzantines, along with islands like Hvar and Krk. Croatia’s southern border touched the land of the Narentines, which included islands such as Brač, Korčula, Mljet, Vis, and Lastovo. Nearby areas were Zahumlje, Travunia, and Dioclea to the south, and the Duchy of Lower Pannonia to the north. The Croatian dukes did not have one fixed capital; they lived in different places such as Klis, Solin, Knin, Biaći, and Nin.

History

Background

The Roman provinces and people in Southeastern Europe, including Dalmatia, were attacked by the Huns and Goths. Later, the Ostrogoths made their own kingdom there. Finds from digs show that groups like the Ostrogoths and Gepids lived in Northern Dalmatia and Pannonia.

The Byzantine Empire tried to take back these lands, but early Slavs moved in during the mid-6th century. The Avars, a group of nomads, led many Slavic tribes and took control. Around 614, they destroyed the main city of Dalmatia, Salona.

According to a historical text, the White Croats either came to Dalmatia after the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius invited them, or they moved in on their own from Pannonia Savia. They were led by five brothers and two sisters. The Croats began to become Christian during this time.

By the early 9th century, the Croats had become a group led by a duke. Their land was around the rivers Cetina, Krka, and Zrmanja, and they were split into 11 areas.

Archaeology

Digs show that new Slavic-Croatian people arrived in the 7th century. We can see this from burial ways, pottery, and other objects that are different from Roman styles. Early Croats built burial chambers in wood or stone.

Christian ways started to spread more in the 8th century. Burials changed from burning bodies to rows of graves with both pagan and Christian ways.

In the Pannonian part of Croatia, we find items from the Avars, while in the Littoral part, there are very few Avar items. In Dalmatia, Avar items were likely taken in wars.

Croats in the late 8th and 9th centuries had many swords of Carolingian-Viking style and other war tools. These items show links with the Frankish-Avar Wars and the Central-European world. Recent finds near Glina show items belonging to a local duke.

Female jewelry included earrings made of precious metals. Simpler jewelry made of silver and bronze was also common. Containers made of antlers with special designs were found in Western Pannonia.

From the mid-9th century, a distinct Croatian style of jewelry developed, especially large bead-shaped earrings. Workshops were likely in Solin, Knin, and Sisak.

Frankish vassalage

The Franks took control of Pannonia and Dalmatia in the late 8th and early 9th centuries. In 788, Charlemagne conquered Lombardy and then Istria. Duke Vojnomir of Pannonia accepted Frankish rule, and the Franks placed his land under the March of Friuli. In 799, the Franks were defeated by Eric of Friuli in the Battle of Trsat in Liburnia, but by 803, Frankish rule was recognized in most of northern Dalmatia.

From around 810, Borna ruled most of northern Dalmatia as a vassal of the Carolingian Empire. His rule included conflicts with Ljudevit Posavski, who rebelled against the Franks.

Between East and West

The Duchy of Croatia was between two big powers: the Eastern Roman Empire, which controlled the Dalmatian cities, and the Franks, who wanted to control the northern lands. Byzantine influence affected Croatian law and trade.

In the 9th century, the Croats began building a navy. Along with the Narentines, they made travel in the Adriatic Sea dangerous for Venice. In 839, the Venetians attacked the eastern Adriatic coast, including Croatia, and made peace with their ruler Mislav, who ruled from Klis near Split. However, peace did not last.

Duke Mislav was succeeded around 845 by Trpimir I, who continued to be a vassal of the Frankish king Lothair I but strengthened his rule in Croatia. Arab attacks weakened the Byzantine Empire and Venice, which helped Trpimir attack Byzantine coastal cities and defend against a Bulgarian invasion.

Trpimir built a church and the first Benedictine monastery in Croatia near Klis.

In 864, Duke Domagoj took power and increased attacks in the Adriatic. Domagoj also fought wars with the Arabs, Venetians, and Franks. After Domagoj's death in 876, Zdeslav returned from exile and restored peace with Venice in 878.

Independent realm

Duke Zdeslav's rule ended in 879 when Branimir killed him and took the throne. Branimir supported Rome and received papal recognition for the Duchy as a free state.

Muncimir, the youngest son of Trpimir, became duke after Branimir's death around 892. During his rule, the Hungarians entered the Carpathian Basin and threatened Croatia.

Muncimir ruled until about 910 when he was succeeded by Tomislav, the last duke and first king of Croatia. In 912, a Venetian ambassador passed through Croatian land on his way to Bulgaria, suggesting Croatia bordered Bulgaria at the time. Croatia fought battles with the Magyars in the early 10th century.

Croatia became a kingdom during these years. Duke Tomislav was the first ruler honored with the title of king by the Papal chancellery. Later documents and inscriptions confirm that his successors called themselves kings.