Jain literature

Jain literature refers to the writings of the Jain religion. It is a very old and large collection of books. These books were first shared by speaking them aloud. The oldest books we still have today are called the Jain Agamas. They are written in a language called Ardhamagadhi. This language is a type of middle Indo-Aryan language known as Prakrit.

Jain monks wrote many explanations and comments about these old books. Later, people also wrote new books in other languages such as Sanskrit and Maharashtri Prakrit.

Jain books are mainly split between two groups within Jainism, called the Digambara and Śvētāmbara orders. These two groups do not always agree on which books should be considered the most important.

In more recent times, Jain writers have also created books in many other languages, including Marathi, Tamil, Rajasthani, Dhundari, Marwari, Hindi, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, and even English.

Origins: The Oral Tradition (Śrutajñāna)

Jain tradition teaches that the messages in their holy books have always existed. In each big cycle of time, twenty-four special teachers called tīrthaṅkaras shared these messages. The first teacher of our time, Ṛṣabhanātha, began sharing these teachings millions of years ago.

Jains believe these teachers spoke from a special divine place called the samavasaraṇa. Many people, including gods and learners, could hear these messages together. This sharing of messages is called śrutajñāna, meaning “heard knowledge.” These messages were not written down at first; they were shared by speaking.

The main learners of each teacher, known as Gaṇadharas, could remember these messages perfectly. They helped change the heard messages into written books called suttas. These books were split into fourteen parts called Pūrvas and eleven parts called Aṅgas. Together, they are known as the “twelve-limbed basket.”

For many years, these important books were passed down by speaking from one teacher to another, using strong memory and chanting. This way of sharing by speaking was a key part of the early Jain writing tradition.

Datings

Scholars do not all agree on when the Jain Agamas were first written. Some believe they began in the 6th century BCE, while others, such as Ian Whicher and David Carpenter, think the earliest parts were written around the 4th or 3rd century BCE. Johannes Bronkhorst says it is difficult to know the exact age of the Jain Agamas.

Based on language, some texts like the Ācārāṅga Sūtra, the Sūtrakṛtāṅga Sūtra, and the Uttarādhyayana Sūtra are considered among the oldest. However, Bronkhorst points out that the Sūtrakṛtāṅga probably dates from the 2nd century BCE at the earliest, because it mentions a Buddhist idea that appeared later.

The Great Schism and the Divergence of Canons

The Jain community slowly split into two groups. The Śvetāmbaras think this split happened in the 1st century CE, while the Digambaras believe it was in the 2nd century BCE.

Śvetāmbaras met around 300 BCE in Pataliputra (now Patna) to share and collect their important teachings called the eleven Aṅgas. However, the twelfth Aṅga, called the Dṛṣṭivāda, was incomplete because the monk who knew it was not there. Later, around 454 or 466 CE, Śvetāmbaras wrote down their teachings during a meeting in Vallabhi, Gujarat. They see these written teachings as the true Agamas, even though some parts are missing.

Digambaras believe the original teachings were lost by the 2nd century CE. They think the last monk who knew the old teachings was Āchārya Bhutabali. Digambaras value other books, like the Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama and Kasayapahuda, instead. This difference in what they believe are the true teachings helped the two groups separate.

Svetambara Canon (The Agamas)

The Śvētāmbara canons, called Siddhāntha, have many important texts. These include twelve Angās (limbs) such as Āyāraṃga, which talks about monastic conduct, and Sūyagaḍa, which discusses different beliefs. There are also twelve Upāṅgas (auxiliary limbs) and six Chedasūtras that guide the behavior of monks and nuns.

There are four Mūlasūtras studied by new monastics, like Dasaveyāliya-sutta, and two Cūlikasūtras that explore knowledge and analytical methods. There are also supplementary texts called Paiṇṇaya suttas, which may vary in number and are not always seen as important as the main texts. Different groups of Śvētāmbara Jains may accept different numbers of these texts in their canon.

Digambara Canon (The Siddhanta)

The Digambara canon of scriptures has two main texts. There are also three commentaries and four groups of writings called Anuyogas. These Anuyogas have more than 20 texts.

Important writers like Virasena and Jinasena wrote commentaries to help explain the texts. The Anuyogas were written between the 2nd and 11th centuries. They are split into four groups: stories, calculations, behavior, and substance. These works cover topics like stories from famous epics, the universe, proper behavior, and understanding the world and the self.

Post-Canonical literature

Jain literature has many important books written after the main religious texts. These books talk about many subjects, such as philosophy, logic, and grammar.

One key book is Tattvarthasūtra by Umasvāti. It explains Jain beliefs and is very important to Jains. Other later works include writings by Bhadrabahu and many writers who used the Sanskrit language.

Important writers and their works include:

• Jinabhadra, who wrote about Jain beliefs
• Mallavadin, who wrote about philosophy
• Haribhadra, who wrote about yoga and commented on religious texts
• Prabhacandra, who wrote about logic
• Abhaydevsuri, who wrote detailed commentaries on religious texts
• Hemachandra, who wrote about yoga and Hindu teachings, and also wrote shorter religious poems
• Vidyanandi, who wrote a commentary on a main Jain book
• Yaśovijaya, who wrote over 100 books on logic and philosophy

Jain writers also helped with grammar and language studies. Books like Jainendra Vyākaraṇa and Siddha-Hema-Śabdānuśāsana by Hemachandra are important. Jains helped develop grammar for many languages, including Tamil.

Jain stories often focus on important people in their religion. Books like Harivamshapurana and Vikramarjuna-Vijaya tell these stories.

Jain texts also talk about mathematics, including numbers, geometry, and equations, showing their interest in many areas of learning.

Languages

Jain literature was written in many languages. These include Jain Prakrit, Sanskrit, Marathi, Tamil, Rajasthani, Dhundari, Marwari, Hindi, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Telugu, and more recently in English.

The oldest Jain texts are in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit and Jain Prakrit. Many important works are also in Sanskrit. Jains helped shape literature in India, especially in Kannada and Tamil.

Manuscript Heritage and Preservation

The Jain literary tradition has a large and ancient collection of manuscripts. For centuries, giving books as gifts, called shastra-dana or the "gift of knowledge," has been a way for people to show respect and earn merit.

Jain manuscript libraries, or jñāna bhaṇḍāras, are some of the oldest libraries in India. They were often kept in temple basements to protect them and were managed by community members or special monks. These libraries contain hundreds of thousands of documents, including some of the earliest-known palm-leaf manuscripts from the 11th century. Important collections can be found in Patan, Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, and Moodabidri in Karnataka.

Because these old manuscripts were written on materials like palm leaves and paper, they face damage from time, moisture, and insects. To save these important texts, modern efforts have been made to protect and digitize them. The Government of India has helped create a Centre for Jain Manuscriptology at Gujarat University to conserve, digitize, and study these manuscripts.

Influence on Indian literature

Parts of the Sangam literature in Tamil are thought to have been written by Jains. Important Tamil books such as the Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi and Nālaṭiyār were written by Jain authors. These books have been loved by many people for years. Some believe the oldest Tamil book, Tolkāppiyam, may also have been written by a Jain.

The famous Tamil book Silappatikaram was written by a Jain named Ilango Adigal. It tells stories from history and describes different religions, including Jainism. Many important Tamil kings supported Jainism.