Kerma culture

The Kerma culture or the Kingdom of Kerma was an early civilization centered in Kerma, Sudan, in ancient Nubia. It developed from around 2500 BC and reached its peak between 1750 BC and 1500 BC. Located in the southern part of Nubia, or "Upper Nubia," which is in parts of present-day northern and central Sudan, the Kerma culture later expanded northward into Lower Nubia and even reached the border of Egypt.

During its time, the Kerma civilization was one of many Nile Valley states that existed during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. It was a mix of many different groups of people from the Sahara, Central Africa, and the Levant. In its later years, from about 1700 to 1500 BC, the Kingdom of Kerma grew larger by taking over the Sudanese kingdom of Sai and became a powerful kingdom.

Eventually, around 1500 BC, the Kerma culture was absorbed into the New Kingdom of Egypt. Later, around the eleventh century BC, a new kingdom called the Kingdom of Kush emerged, and won back independence from Egypt.

Site and periodisation

The main place of Kerma was a big town and a cemetery with large burial mounds. This showed how powerful the Kingdom of Kerma was, especially when they came close to Egypt's southern border during a time called the Second Intermediate Period.

We learn about different times in Kerma's history by looking at things like pottery and other discoveries. These times match with Egypt's history. They are: Early Kerma (2500–2000 BC, when Egypt was in its late Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period), Middle Kerma (2000–1750 BC, when Egypt was in its Middle Kingdom), Classic Kerma (1750–1500 BC, when Egypt was in its Second Intermediate Period), and Late or Post-Kerma (after 1500 BC, during Egypt's 18th Dynasty).

History

Pre-Kerma culture and Early Kerma

The Kerma culture came after the pre-Kerma culture, which lived between 3500 BC and 2500 BC in Upper Nubia. The pre-Kerma culture had small kingdoms and states, smaller than the A-Group culture in Lower Nubia, but they controlled larger areas. Upper Nubia had contact with the Egyptian Old Kingdom (around 2700–2200 BC) during its control of Lower Nubia, as shown by epigraphic evidence and findings from Aniba. They were likely loyal to the kings of Egypt at first.

The earliest settlement in the Kerma area dates from the pre-Kerma period and was under the later Kerma cemetery. The pre-Kerma settlement had wooden structures marked by postholes, storage pits, cattle pens, two small rectangular buildings and fifty round huts. The site was surrounded by wooden palisades and earthen ramparts or walls.

Early Kerma

The settlement at Kerma grew from a small fortified village in the Early Kerma period (2500–2000 BC), to a fortified settlement of 3 ha (30,000 m²) in the Middle Kerma period (2000–1750 BC).

The Gash Group, a Neolithic culture that lived from 3000 to 1800 BC in Eritrea and the Eastern Sudan, had contacts with Kerma during its development. Kerma elements were found at Mahal Teglinos, the main site of the Gash Group. For many centuries, the Gash people were part of the trade routes between Egypt and the southern regions of the Nile valley, so Mahal Teglinos became an important trading partner of the Kerma state. This trade helped the rise of complex societies in the region.

By 2300 BC, the Early C-Group culture was also appearing in Lower Nubia, most probably arriving from Dongola Reach (near Kerma). Thus, by the second millennium BC, Kerma was the centre of a large kingdom, probably the first in the Eastern Sudan, that rivalled Egypt. As the Old Kingdom declined, Kerma expanded north to Aswan.

Middle and Classic Kerma

Kerma grew from a fortified settlement of 3 ha (30,000 m²) in the Middle Kerma period (2000–1750 BC), to a fully urban settlement of about 25 ha (250,000 m²) in the Classic Kerma period (1750–1500 BC).

The Middle Kerma Period coincided with the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and the reigns of Egyptian pharaohs Amenemhat I to Sobekhotep IV (around 1990–1725 BC). During this period Egypt conducted military campaigns into Lower Nubia, possibly to counter Kerman influence. The Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaoh Senwosret I established forts at Ikkur, Quban, Aniba, Buhen, and Kor. The fort at Qubban protected gold mining operations along Wadi Allaqi and Wadi Gabgaba.^: 89, 91  Kerma strongly fortified Saï, which served as the border to Upper Nubia.

The long history of Egyptian military activity in Lower Nubia may show that Kerma was seen as a threat to Pharaonic Egypt at times. Principal Egyptian fortifications were built in the middle Nile Valley during the Middle Kingdom. These were to protect the Upper Egyptian border against raids from Kerma, and to protect important trade routes between the two regions. Both during the Middle and New Kingdoms, the resources Kerma had—such as gold, cattle, milk products, ebony, incense, ivory, etc.—were highly valued by Egypt. Its army was built around archers.

During the Middle and Classic periods Egyptian influence becomes visible in the development of linear-walled, fired mudbrick architecture, more elaborate burial practices, and imported prestige goods.

Classic Kerma

Egyptian control weakened during the 13th Dynasty and 2nd Intermediate Period. This became the period of greatest development of Kerma and its greatest extent — its Classic period, dating from around 1750–1500 BC. During this period the city expanded, becoming a 'fully urban settlement' of about 25 hectares. Massive royal tombs were built in the city's necropolis. A large monumental mudbrick temple known as the "Western Deffufa" was built in the centre of the town. Kushite confrontations also occurred with Egypt in Lower Nubia.^: 94–96 

Late Kerma and Egyptian conquest

Under Thutmose I of the New Kingdom, Egypt made several campaigns south, destroying Kerma. This eventually resulted in the Egyptian annexation of Nubia (Kerma/ Kush) around 1504 BC, and the establishment of a southern frontier at Kanisah Kurgus, south of the Fourth Cataract. After the conquest, Kerma culture was increasingly influenced by Egypt yet rebellions continued for 220 years (till around 1300 BC). During the New Kingdom, Kerma/Kush nevertheless became a key province of the Egyptian Empire—economically, politically and spiritually. Indeed, major Pharonic ceremonies were held at Jebel Barkal near Napata, which included a large Amun temple.^{: 78, 101–103} 

The New Kingdom of Egypt maintained control of Lower and Middle Nubia, with a Viceroy of Kush, or 'King's Son of Kush'. Egyptian settlements were established on Sai Island, Sedeinga, Soleb, Mirgissa, and Sesibi. Qubban continued to play a strategic role in Eastern Desert gold mining operations.^: 106 

The extent of cultural/political continuity between the Kingdom of Kerma and the chronologically succeeding Kingdom of Kush is difficult to determine. The latter polity began to emerge around 1000 BC, around 500 years after the end of the Kingdom of Kerma.^{: 75, 112}  Initially, the Kushite kings continued to use Kerma for royal burials and special ceremonies, suggesting some connection. Moreover, the layout of royal funerary compounds in both Kerma and Napata (the Kush capital) are similarly designed. Caches of statues of Kush's pharaohs have also been discovered at Kerma, suggesting that the Napatan rulers recognized a historic link between their capital and Kerma.

Ecopolitical structure

The Kerma culture was a large and important group of people in ancient times. We learned a lot about Kerma from its main town and graves. New digging found many more places where people lived. These places are along old river channels.

Kerma was a strong and organized group. It controlled a big area along the river. The land had many small villages where people grew food. Some areas were for taking care of animals and working with gold. Special towns collected food and managed trade. Cattle were very important and were sometimes brought as gifts when kings died.

People in Kerma grew crops before Kerma time and knew how to work with copper metal. The main towns, like Kerma and Sai Island, had rich and powerful leaders. They watched over trade with distant lands. Kerma was an important place for trading valuable items between Central Africa and Egypt.

Merowe Dam Fourth Cataract Abu Hamad Mograt Island Doukki Gel Sai Island

Religious and spiritual tradition

The Kerma culture had its own special ways of believing and worshipping. They often showed animals in their art, not giving them human shapes like later Egyptians did. Some people think the Kerma people believed in nature spirits. They treated a place called Jebel Barkal as holy. They respected animals like lions, which later became important gods. They used special charms called amulets, some showing imaginary creatures. Their beliefs were similar to other traditional African religions.

Language

The language of the Kerma culture is still unknown. Some experts think they spoke languages from the Nilo-Saharan family, while others believe they spoke languages from the Afro-Asiatic family.

One idea is that the Kerma people spoke Cushitic languages, part of the Afro-Asiatic family. This idea comes from words in today’s Nobiin language that may have come from the Kerma people, especially words about animals and farming.

Another idea is that the Kerma people spoke Eastern Sudanic languages, part of the Nilo-Saharan family. This could mean they were related to the later Meroitic language. Experts have different ideas, and more research is needed to know for sure.

History of archaeological research

20th century archaeology

When archaeologists first dug at Kerma in the 1920s, they thought it might have been a base for Egyptian leaders. They believed Egyptian rulers later became kings of Kerma. This idea came from finding Egyptian statues in large graves. For a long time, people thought Kerma was just a small trading place linked to Egypt.

But in the middle of the 20th century, more digging showed that Kerma was much bigger and more complex. It also became clear that the way people lived and buried their dead in Kerma was mostly from local traditions, not Egyptian ones.

21st century archaeology and biological anthropology

In 2003, a team led by Swiss archaeologist Charles Bonnet found a group of very large black granite statues of Egyptian pharaohs from the Twenty-fifth Dynasty near Kerma. These statues, now shown in the Kerma Museum, include works from the last two pharaohs, Taharqa and Tanoutamon, and are considered some of the greatest masterpieces in art history.

Studies comparing the bones of Kerma people with other early groups along the Nile and in North Africa showed they were very similar to people from Predynastic Egypt, especially from Naqada. They were also related to people from Dynastic Egypt, ancient Libya, and other places. The Kerma people shared strong ties with groups in Upper Nubia, Lower Nubia, and Ethiopia, and were also connected to people from the Meroitic and X-Group periods in Nubia, as well as ancient Egyptians from various times and places.