Nabataean religion

The Nabataean religion was a form of Arab polytheism practiced in Nabataea, an ancient Arab nation. The Nabateans believed in many gods and goddesses. They worshipped local deities and well-known ones such as Baalshamin, Isis, and even gods from Greek and Roman traditions like Tyche and Dionysus.

People in Nabataea held their religious services in temples, special outdoor places called high places, and simple stone shapes known as betyls. They often used simple shapes and designs instead of statues in their holy places, a style called aniconic.

The Nabateans performed ceremonies with offerings and other special acts to honor their gods. They also believed that life continued after death.

Gods and goddesses

The Nabataean religion had many gods and goddesses from the pre-Islamic Arab pantheon and other places like Isis and Atargatis.

One important god was Dushara, meaning "Lord of the Mountain." He was very important in Petra and was seen as the main god by the Nabataeans. After the Romans took over, Dushara was linked with other gods such as Dionysus, Zeus, and Helios. Another goddess, Manāt, was honored for bringing rain and help in battles. Al-Lāt was a well-known goddess in Northern Arabia and Syria, sometimes thought to be connected to Athena. She was worshipped in Palmyra. Al-'Uzza was another goddess, linked to Aphrodite. Baalshamin was a sky god, similar to the Greek Zeus. Other gods and goddesses included Qos, Hubal, and Isis. The Nabataeans honored many different deities from many places.

External influences on gods/goddesses

Many of the gods and goddesses worshipped by the Nabataean people came from other cultures. During Roman rule, Nabataean gods were often linked with Greek and Roman gods. For example, the Egyptian goddess Isis was worshipped by the Nabataeans, Greeks, and Romans. The god Dushara was sometimes seen as similar to Dionysius. Temples also featured gods like Helios and Eros. After the Romans took control of Nabataea, some tombs honored Greek and Roman gods instead of traditional Nabataean ones. In the temple of Qasr, people worshipped Aphrodite (who was also known as al-‘Uzza) and Dushara.

Relationships between the gods

The ways Nabataean gods and goddesses were connected can be hard to understand because there isn’t much information. In some places, gods and goddesses were thought of as husband and wife, but in other places, they were not. For example, the god Dushara was sometimes seen as the husband of Al-Lat and other times as her son. Al-Lat, Al-‘Uzza, and Manāt were often called the daughters of the main god Allah. In some areas, Al-Lat and Al-‘Uzza were even thought to be the same goddess.

Rituals and animals

In the city of Petra, there were special paths that connected different temples, like the Qasr el-Bint temple and the Temple of the Winged Lions. These paths helped people walk between important places for ceremonies. The Nabataeans visited the tombs of their family members for special meals. They used sweet smells and scented oils and sometimes left gifts inside the tombs to remember those who had passed away. Some rituals used animals like birds, goats, and dogs. They also sometimes offered camels to their gods, especially to Dushara.

Sacred objects or animals

The Nabataeans used special objects and animals in their worship. They had tiny temples with stone pillars called betyls carved from rock. They also used altars to honor their gods. Sacred animals like eagles, serpents, sphinxes, and griffins were often seen on Nabataean tombs.

Most gods were shown as betyls, sometimes carved or carried in processions. When gods were shown as people, they were often simple "eye-idol" betyls. Because of influences from Greece and Rome, statues of Nabataean gods also existed. For example, the goddess Isis is shown in human form, possibly because she was honored in places like Egypt and Rome. The god Dushara was shown in both betyl and statue forms across the Nabataean kingdom.

Places of worship

The Nabataeans had many places for religious practices, called "high places." These were open-air shrines, temples, and altars usually built on mountains. These special spots across the Nabataean kingdom were for worshipping many gods. People made offerings like goods, food, and sometimes animals.

The Negev and Hejaz

Sobata

Main article: Shivta

Sobata, a major city about 40 km southwest of Beersheba, has very few remains of Nabataean worship places. But a little evidence shows that people worshipped Dushara there.

Avdat

Main article: Avdat

Avdat, in the mountains southeast of Sobata, mainly honoured the deified Obodas I. People built temples there, including one for the deified Obodas III.

Rawwafah

Rawwafah, 300 km from Petra, has one temple in the Nabataean style. An inscription shows it was built after the Nabataean kingdom ended.

Mampsis

Main article: Mampsis

Mampsis, about 81 km from Petra, was an important stop on the incense trade route. Archaeologists found Nabataean buildings and water systems there.

The Hauran

Bostra

Main article: Bosra

Bostra, in southern Syria, was the northern capital of the Nabataean kingdom. People built temples at major spots in the city, including one for Dushara-A'ra, the god of the Nabataean kings and Bostra.

Seeia

Seeia, north of Bostra near Canatha, has three large temples. The biggest is for Baalshamin, and the smaller ones may honour local gods or goddesses.

Avraham Negev wrote in 1988 about Seeia (Seia, Sî) in northern Hauran (ancient Auranitis), with its 3 temples and a necropolis.

Sahr

The temples here look like those in Wadi Rum, Dharih, Tannur, and Qasrawet.

Sur

The temples here also resemble those in Wadi Rum, Dharih, Tannur, and Qasrawet.

Suweida

Further information: As-Suwayda

The temples here are like those near Petra in Wadi Rum, Dharih, Tannur, and Qasrawet. Nabataean writings show people honoured Al-Lat and Baalshamin.

Central Jordan

Khirbet Tannur

Khirbet Tannur, in Central Jordan, has a temple on top of a mountain. It is hard to reach, which may mean it was very important. The inside has pictures of plants, fruits, and gods.

Khirbet edh-Dharih

Main article: Khirbet edh-Dharih

Khirbet edh-Dharih, 7 km south of Hurawa, has a very well-preserved temple. It has courtyards, pathways, and benches.

Southern Jordan

Petra

Main article: Petra

Petra, the capital of the Nabataean Kingdom around 312 BC, is famous for its rock-cut buildings. People honoured Dushara and goddesses like Al-'Uzzá, Al-Lat, and Manāt. They also worshipped deified kings like Obodas I. The temples show styles from Rome, Greece, Egypt, and Persia. The High Place had altars for offerings.

Hawara

Hawara has a long path leading to a courtyard overlooking Jebel Qalkha. The design suggests people may have honoured Dushara or even Jupiter there.

Wadi Rum

Wadi Rum has a temple for Al-Lat, with a sanctuary for Ayn esh-Shallaleh behind it. There are also places for Dushara and Baalshamin.

Northwestern Saudi Arabia

Hegra

Main article: Hegra (Mada'in Salih)

Hegra, known today as Mada’in Saleh, has a ritual circle on a mountain. There are small stone shapes and niches for other gods. An inscription may refer to Dushara.

Outside the Middle East

The Puteoli Nabataean inscriptions show that Nabataean religion existed in Puteoli, now Pozzuoli, Italy. In 2023, divers found a submerged Nabataean temple at the port. This is the only known Nabataean temple outside their homeland. The temple used local Roman building methods. Writings like "Dusari sacrum" show it was for worshipping Dushara.

Processional ways

People used different paths to reach their places of worship, depending on where they lived. In some places, the paths were just simple rock trails with no decorations. But in places like Petra, the paths were more special. They had carvings, monuments, sculptures, special stone shapes called betyls, and sometimes tall stone pillars called obelisks. In Petra, the path had special spots like the Lion Fountain, a carved lion, the Garden Tomb, and the Nabataean Quarry.

Temple layout

Nabataean temples had many different designs. There was no single way they all looked. The Nabataeans used ideas from the cultures they traded with. These included Greek, Roman, Persian, Egyptian, and Syrian styles. They used these ideas in their temple buildings.

Betyls

Betyls were special stone blocks that the Nabataeans used to represent their gods. The word "betyl" comes from a Greek story about stones that fell from the sky. These stones were often placed on altars where people performed religious ceremonies. Sometimes, betyls were also found in tombs.

Betyls came in many shapes, like plain rectangular slabs, rounded tops, dome shapes, and stones with faces carved on them. Scholars think these betyls might have been seen as holding the gods inside or as images of the gods. Some marks on floors and altars suggest that betyls might have been kept safe and then moved to special places for worship.

Rituals

The Nabataeans had special ways to honor their gods. They often gave offerings like wine and incense, especially to the sun god Dushara every day. They also gave precious metals like silver and gold to their gods.

Animals were sometimes used in special ceremonies to please the gods. Some writings suggest they may have celebrated a special event in the spring.

Strabo Porphyry De Abstenentia Dushara Dumat Al-Jandal Dushara-A’ra Nisan

Funerary rituals

The Nabataeans built rock-cut tombs as resting places for the dead. They believed that people continued to live after death and needed care, like the ancient Egyptians. Wealthier families sometimes added gardens and dining areas around their tombs for feasting. Symbols like eagles, representing the god Dushara, were carved above doorways for protection.

Many tombs had inscriptions with rules about who could use the tomb and what actions were not allowed. These inscriptions were common in places like Mada'in Saleh, but most tombs in Petra did not have them. The items left in tombs, such as vessels for feasting, show that the Nabataeans believed the afterlife was a place where people could enjoy meals and spend time with loved ones. The way tombs were built and the items placed inside give us clues about their beliefs.