Reformation

The Reformation was a big change in religious ideas that happened in Europe during the 1500s. It began when a man named Martin Luther shared his thoughts in a book called the Ninety-five Theses in 1517. Luther and other leaders believed that people could find favor with God just by believing in Jesus, not by doing many good deeds as the Catholic Church taught at the time. This new way of thinking led to the start of Protestantism.

Many new Christian groups grew from these ideas. In Switzerland, Huldrych Zwingli and in France, John Calvin helped create their own versions of these beliefs. In England, Thomas Cranmer and in Scotland, John Knox led changes that created the Anglican and Presbyterian churches. There were also groups called Radical Reformers, like the Anabaptists, who wanted to live even closer to the ways of early Christians.

The spread of books because of Gutenberg's printing press helped these new ideas reach many people quickly. The Catholic Church also made changes in response, called the Counter-Reformation, to answer questions and fix problems that the reformers pointed out. These religious changes led to many conflicts and wars across Europe.

Terminology

The term "Reformation" describes big changes in Christian beliefs and practices in the 1500s. It includes four main movements: Lutheranism, Calvinism, the Radical Reformation, and the Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation. Historians often say "Reformations" because it was not one single event but many movements happening together.

One commonly accepted start date for the Reformation is October 31, 1517, when the German theologian Martin Luther shared his ideas about church practices. Some believe it began earlier, in 1516, when a Swiss priest named Huldrych Zwingli spoke out against church abuses. The exact end date of the Reformation is still debated by historians.

Background

Calamities

Europe had many problems in the early 1300s. A terrible sickness called the Black Death killed many people. By 1500, Europe’s population was smaller. With fewer workers, some rules changed and sometimes people protested.

People often worried about sudden deaths. This fear appeared in art and church services for the dead. There were also worries about magic, which led to unfair treatment of some people accused of using it.

Late Medieval Christianity

People in villages and towns joined groups to help each other. They visited special places and read the Bible, especially stories from Jesus’ life. Church buildings had beautiful paintings and statues.

The Church taught that to go to heaven, people needed to be in a good state when they died. They believed in doing kind acts, like helping the hungry and sick.

Humanism

A new way of thinking called Humanism began in the late Middle Ages. Humanists loved studying old books and learning from ancient thinkers. They wanted to go “back to the sources” to understand things better. When printing became easier, more people could read books, including the Bible in different languages.

Dissidents

Even before the Reformation, some people didn’t agree with everything the Church taught. For example, John Wycliffe in England and Jan Hus in Prague spoke out against what they saw as wrong. They believed more in reading the Bible directly. Their ideas helped prepare the way for bigger changes later.

Beginnings

The Reformation in Germany began with Martin Luther, but his ideas were shaped by earlier thinkers like Wycliff, Huss, Erasmus, and Zwingli. Historians see the Reformation as a growth of changes inside the Catholic Church, not a total break from it.

Luther and the Ninety-five Theses

Pope Leo X wanted to build St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and raised money by selling certificates called indulgences. A monk named Johann Tetzel sold these indulgences in Germany, which upset many people, including Martin Luther, a professor at the University of Wittenberg. Luther believed that people could not buy their way to heaven and that faith was more important.

On October 31, 1517, Luther wrote a letter to a bishop with his Ninety-five Theses, questioning the sale of indulgences. The bishop asked other theologians to review Luther's ideas, and the matter reached the Pope. Pope Leo X sent a cardinal to talk to Luther, but Luther refused to change his ideas unless the Bible showed them to be wrong.

New theology

Luther shared his ideas publicly in 1518, speaking about a loving God who saves people through faith, not just good works. He believed that God chooses who will be saved and that faith is a gift from God. Over time, Luther's ideas grew. He taught that only two sacraments—baptism and the Eucharist—were truly important, and that priests were servants, not special rulers.

Luther wrote many books explaining his views. In 1520, he criticized the idea that priests had to remain unmarried. In 1521, the Pope ordered Luther's books to be burned, and Luther was called to defend himself before the Holy Roman Emperor. Luther refused to take back his ideas and was protected by Frederick the Wise.

Spread

Luther's ideas spread quickly because of the printing press. His books became very popular, and printers in many German cities helped share his message. Artists like Lucas Cranach also helped by creating images that explained Luther's teachings.

Enthusiastic preachers helped spread Luther's ideas in cities like Basel, Schaffhausen, Strasbourg, and Ulm. These preachers, called Evangelicals, emphasized teaching from the Gospels and challenged many old church practices. They believed that many traditions had no basis in the Bible.

Cities that governed themselves, like those in the Hanseatic League, were often the first to adopt Luther's ideas. The spread of the Reformation was also influenced by student networks and neighboring cities that had already rejected Catholicism.

Resistance and oppression

Not everyone accepted Luther's ideas. In places like Flanders, the Rhineland, Bavaria, and Austria, many people resisted the Reformation. Cities with important religious sites or monasteries were less likely to adopt Luther's teachings. Even some famous thinkers of the time criticized Luther.

In some countries, Luther's books were burned, and followers were punished. In England, King Henry VIII defended the Catholic Church against Luther's ideas. In Scotland, the first Evangelical preacher was executed. In France, some reformers were forced to leave after the king was captured in battle.

In Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland, Luther's ideas spread among German communities, but local rulers often opposed them. In Denmark and Norway, a new king took power and was more open to the Reformation, while in Sweden, a local leader became king and supported the changes.

Alternatives

Saxon radicals and rebellious knights

Further information: Radical Reformation and Knights' War

Andreas Karlstadt helped change the church in Wittenberg. He changed how Holy Communion was given and spoke out against old religious images. Some people in Wittenberg liked these new ideas, but others did not. Luther, a leader of the changes, tried to calm everyone down. Some knights, like Franz von Sickingen, fought against church leaders but they did not win.

Zwingli

Main article: Theology of Huldrych Zwingli

Huldrych Zwingli was a priest in Zürich who started changing church rules before Luther. He did not follow the rules about not eating meat during Lent. He removed images from churches and changed many church practices. Zwingli believed the Eucharist was just a way to remember Jesus, not that Jesus was really in the bread and wine. This caused disagreements with Luther.

Swiss Brethren

Main article: Swiss Brethren

Some people, like Conrad Grebel, wanted even bigger changes. They believed only adults should be baptized and that the church should be separate from government rules. In 1525, some people chose to be baptized again to show their belief, and were called Anabaptists. This caused trouble, and some people were treated very badly by leaders who did not agree with them.

Peasants' War

Main article: German Peasants' War

In 1524 and 1525, many farmers in Germany were unhappy with their leaders. They made a list of demands, called the Twelve Articles, asking for fair treatment and the right to choose their church leaders. Some leaders gave advice but did not answer the farmers' demands. The farmers fought but were defeated by soldiers. Some leaders of the farmers were caught and punished.

Consolidation

Princely Reformation in Germany

The Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach, was the first prince to leave the old church traditions. After losing battles, he changed the land into the Duchy of Prussia in 1525. He and his brothers told priests in Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Brandenburg-Ansbach to teach new beliefs. The Reformation began in Electoral Saxony under John the Constant in 1525. This helped smaller German states like Mansfeld and Hessen accept the Reformation. Philip of Hessen started the first new university at Marburg in 1527.

At the Diet of Speyer in 1526, German princes agreed they could choose their own religious path. Emperor Charles was busy with wars, so his brother Ferdinand represented him. They disagreed, but Ferdinand had to deal with problems in Bohemia and Hungary. In 1527, Charles' soldiers took control of Rome and held the Pope. Martin Luther believed that the emperor, while fighting for the Pope, ended up helping Luther's cause.

Luther stopped talking about congregations choosing their ministers. Instead, he thought princes should help keep the church together. In Electoral Saxony, new rules were made. Services were made simpler, and state leaders took control of church lands. A new leader named superintendent was appointed in 1533. Luther made two sets of teachings—one for priests and one for children—because he found that people didn't know much about their faith. New leaders sometimes criticized old traditions like church fairs.

Five princes and fourteen cities protested at the Diet of Speyer in 1529, leading to the name "Protestants". A meeting was held in Marburg in 1529 to unite different groups, but they disagreed on important beliefs. Zwingli's followers called themselves the "Reformed".

Stalemate in Switzerland

In 1526, villages in Graubünden, Switzerland, decided they could choose between the old and new beliefs. This set an example for others. Protestant and Catholic areas in Switzerland argued a lot. Protestant areas made an alliance in 1529, and Catholic areas did the same in April. After a peaceful fight, villages were allowed to choose their religion by vote. Zwingli tried to convince people to join the new beliefs, but after a battle in 1531 where he died, the Catholics stopped the spread of the new beliefs in Switzerland.

Confessions

In 1530, Charles V asked Protestants to explain their beliefs at the Diet in Augsburg. Since Luther couldn't go, Melanchthon wrote down their beliefs in twenty-eight articles called the Augsburg Confession. Four cities had their own document because they followed Zwingli's ideas. Charles asked Catholic leaders to respond, and they wrote a refutation. Melanchthon then wrote a defense called the Apology of the Augsburg Confession.

Charles wanted to punish Protestant leaders, but some Catholic leaders didn't support him. In 1531, Protestant leaders formed the Schmalkaldic League for protection. A peace treaty was signed in Nuremberg in 1532 because of threats from the Ottoman Empire.

Royal Reformation in Scandinavia

In Denmark and Norway, kings and parliaments started changing the church. In 1526, a preacher named Hans Tausen began teaching new beliefs with the king's support. After some conflicts, Christian III became king and supported the new beliefs. He made the Augsburg Confession the official beliefs in 1538.

In Norway and Iceland, leaders resisted the changes. In Iceland, Bishop Jón Arason fought against the changes but was captured.

In Sweden, King Gustav I supported new beliefs. He appointed new leaders and translated religious texts. He took control of church lands to pay debts. Some people were unhappy with the changes, leading to uprisings. Gustav made promises to calm people down but continued changing the church.

Catholic reform

See also: Counter-Reformation

The time was hard for the Catholic Church, especially after big events like the sack of Rome in 1527. Many people thought the church needed to change. Pope Paul III chose important leaders to help fix problems inside the church.

New groups, like the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits), started to help. Their leader, Ignatius of Loyola, made guides to help people grow in their faith. The Jesuits focused on teaching and preparing priests.

Pope Paul III called a big meeting called the Council of Trent. This meeting happened over many years and talked about important beliefs and how to improve the church. After the meeting, the church made changes to strengthen its teachings and organization.

New waves

English reformation under Henry VIII

In England, religious leaders shared new ideas about Christianity with students at universities like Cambridge and Oxford. A priest named William Tyndale translated the New Testament into English so people could read the Bible in their own language. This translation changed the English language.

King Henry VIII wanted to end his marriage to Catherine of Aragon because she had not had a son. He asked scholars for reasons to end the marriage. They said English kings had always led the church and that the Bible did not allow a man to marry his brother’s widow. With help from his advisor Thomas Cromwell, Henry broke away from the Pope in Rome. He married Anne Boleyn and became the leader of the Church of England. People who did not support this change were punished.

Münster

In the city of Münster, a group led by Jan Matthijszoon took control and tried to create a new society with strict religious rules. They stopped people from having private property or money and made rules for everyone. Their rule did not last long. After a long siege, the city was taken over. The leaders were killed, and most of these groups stopped being violent.

Calvin and the Institutes of the Christian Religion

John Calvin, a French lawyer, became an important leader in the Reformation after leaving France. He wrote a book called the Institutes of the Christian Religion, where he shared his beliefs about Christianity. Calvin believed that God had already decided who would be saved. He moved to Geneva, where he helped make rules for the church and community. People who did not follow these rules faced serious consequences.

Reformation in Britain

After King Henry VIII died, his son Edward VI became king. Under Edward, more changes were made to the English church, like taking statues out of churches. When Edward died, his half-sister Mary became queen and tried to bring back Catholic traditions, which caused problems. After Mary died, her half-sister Elizabeth became queen. Elizabeth tried to find a balance between different religious groups, creating a path many people could accept. This helped shape the Church of England.

Wars of religion and tolerance

Schmalkaldic Wars

In the early 1540s, problems and arguments weakened Protestant groups in Germany. Disputes over land caused old rivalries between family members in Saxony. An emperor used this chance to build a group of princes against two areas. This group included a duke of Saxony. During the war, the emperor and his allies won an important battle.

The emperor made rules about religion with an order. But different ideas about religion caused more debates in the 1550s. The order was only used in some cities. This led to some religious leaders being asked to leave. A leader, worried about the emperor, made an agreement with other princes and promised land to a king for support. They attacked the emperor’s land, and he had to run away. On 10 August 1552, they signed a peace treaty. It said religion issues would be talked about at a meeting later. The meeting started on 5 February 1555. The emperor, who was tired, chose another leader to speak for him. They ended with a peace treaty on 25 September. The treaty said leaders could only choose between two types of religion. Some cities had to allow different religious groups to live there.

French Wars of Religion

Many French followers of a religion did not show their beliefs in public. They were called a certain name after a leader who visited another leader in secret. Under a leader’s influence, these followers stopped going to some church services. They were called another name for unknown reasons. A leader gave them popular songs by turning religious songs into French. A king wanted to end a certain belief in France. The next year, followers were attacked in a place. In 1547, the king made a special court for cases about this belief. After 1555, important French leaders joined this belief and encouraged others to show their beliefs. In 1559, delegates from different groups met for the first time at a certain church, speaking for about 1.5–2 million believers. The meeting chose a certain document, a set of beliefs written by a leader.

The king was busy with a new war and did not punish these followers much. But after he died suddenly, his son became king. His wife was related to leaders of a Catholic group. She did not trust them, but under their influence, attacks on these followers grew worse. When the son died, a leader thought it was a sign from a higher power. The son was replaced by his brother, guided by the queen mother. She let these followers have church services and meetings in public to avoid a civil war.

Unwilling followers of certain beliefs thought fighting was inevitable. The first of several armed conflicts began after certain leaders attacked over fifty followers at a place on 1 March 1562. Because a leader had returned to a certain belief, his brother took control of a certain group. They made a treaty with a certain country in September 1562. To try to make peace, a leader married her daughter to the Protestant son of certain leaders, a certain king. But distrust between groups, and the wish of some to remove a certain belief from their city, led to a certain event after the wedding. On 24 August 1572, a certain group attacked certain people in a city, and by early October, more attacks happened in other cities and towns. Many people went back to a certain belief or left the country, and those who stayed gathered in certain areas and kept fighting.

Revolt in the Netherlands

Between 1523 and 1555, more followers of a belief were punished in the seventeen provinces of a certain country than anywhere else. The harsh punishments stopped the forming of certain religious groups, though ideas about the belief were discussed in communities. The belief spread through letters between people and a certain school starting in the 1540s. Certain followers sometimes upset certain ceremonies. A leader set up the first permanent groups for this belief. He helped write a certain document, a set of beliefs based on another document, first published in a certain language in 1561 and another language in 1562. The document strongly criticized a certain group and stressed the importance of certain practices.

In 1566, certain leaders asked a certain leader to make laws less strict against this belief. Even though the leaders were mocked, the certain leader agreed to a compromise. Certain people came back from other countries, and some enthusiasts caused public protests. On the night of 20–21 August 1566, a certain group damaged a certain church, starting a certain movement across the country. In 1567, a certain leader chose someone to stop the protests. Another certain leader took control of the fight against the rules. His group took over certain areas by 1572, even though most people in towns did not belong to these communities.

A certain government ran out of money, and certain soldiers hurt a certain city in 1576. This caused a revolt against a certain rule. A certain leader made an agreement with another leader, but rivalry between groups continued. In 1581, the northern provinces joined together under a certain leader and refused to follow another leader. In the south, a certain leader stopped the revolts, making about 100,000 people flee to the north. A certain country grew from seven northern provinces and was loosely led by a certain family. Certain leaders wanted to change society, but they failed because another leader preferred to be more open, and many people linked certain practices to a belief. As a result, certain groups and beliefs stayed in the country. Beliefs also spread, like the ideas of a certain leader who said a person could stand up to a certain power. Even though a belief was turned down at a meeting in 1619, it still influenced certain leaders.

Edict of Torda

After a certain king died, two people wanted to be king of Hungary. They were Catholic but did not want to upset supporters by certain actions. A certain leader began sharing certain teachings in a certain city around 1530. These teachings spread after certain leaders began naming certain preachers in churches in the 1530s. After a certain leader died, the Ottomans took over central Hungary. One person ruled for their young son in certain Hungary under Ottoman control, and another leader ruled certain Hungary in the north and west. Often needing money, a certain leader took money from churches, while another person and a certain bishop took over church lands. A certain group chose a certain document in 1544; five years later, certain cities accepted a certain belief in certain Hungary.

Two former Catholic priests were among the first certain pastors to share certain beliefs. Certain practices were made illegal by a certain group in certain Hungary in 1548. A certain person was open to new ideas. Influenced by his court chaplain, a certain leader, he followed certain beliefs from 1562 and agreed with certain views later in life. A certain document made three certain beliefs legal in certain Hungary in 1568. Certain Hungary became a certain country under Ottoman control in 1570. The idea of four officially recognized groups stayed important in the country’s politics. The most radical certain people rejected a certain book and kept a certain day as their weekly rest day, so they were called a certain name.

Warsaw Confederation

A certain group was known for working hard, so many certain leaders settled them on their lands. Certain people began to listen to certain ideas, especially the beliefs of a certain leader from the 1540s. A certain leader wrote to another leader in 1540; in 1542, a certain leader changed his beliefs although a certain person held a certain title. In 1548, a certain king’s open-minded son became king. Two years later, the first meeting of a certain church happened at a certain place. A certain king suggested ideas to change certain practices and end certain traditions, but a certain leader turned them down. Catholic leaders tried to take certain people and priests to court for a certain belief, but a certain group stopped these attacks thanks to a certain leader and another leader in 1552. In 1556, a certain leader tried to bring all certain followers together but failed. At the meeting, a certain person criticized certain traditions and a certain belief openly. The certain followers created their own church, called a certain church instead of a certain church. From 1565, certain leaders could no longer be punished for certain reasons, allowing them to freely choose between different beliefs. By this time, about one-fifth of the nobility had changed to a certain belief, and most non-religious members of a certain group were Protestant. The relationship between certain countries changed with a certain agreement that created a certain country. After a certain king died, a certain group made a certain document saying only leaders who promised to protect certain freedom could be elected king.

Reformation outside Germany

The Reformation spread throughout Europe, starting in Bohemia and moving to other countries over the next few decades.

Nordic countries

All of Scandinavia adopted Lutheranism during the 16th century. The kings of Denmark (who also ruled Norway and Iceland) and Sweden (who also ruled Finland) chose this faith.

Iceland

Luther’s ideas reached Iceland before the king’s orders. German traders living near Iceland helped spread the new ideas. In 1538, when the king’s decree arrived, some leaders in Iceland opposed it. In 1539, the king sent a new leader to Iceland to introduce the changes.

Great Britain

England

The English Reformation was a long and changing process. It created a church that was different from the Catholic Church, with services that were simpler and focused on preaching. These changes were made by leaders who could read and write.

English North America

Many people left England to start a new life in America. These were Puritans who did not agree with the Church of England. They first went to Holland and then to America, where they founded the colony of Massachusetts. These settlers were also called Pilgrims. They settled in Plymouth in 1620.

Wales

Leaders in Wales introduced new ideas from a Swiss church leader. In 1588, the whole Bible was printed in the Welsh language. This helped the people of Wales accept these new ideas.

Scotland

In Scotland, the Reformation led to a new church that followed Swiss ideas. A leader named John Knox helped make these changes. The Scottish church decided to follow rules set by Swiss leaders and became different from the Catholic Church.

France

In France, the Catholic Church stayed strong, but some people wanted change. Over time, the number of people who wanted change grew smaller. By the late 1600s, a rule was made that only the Catholic Church was allowed, and many people who wanted change had to leave France.

Spain

In Spain, leaders were very careful about any new ideas that might change the Catholic Church. They did not allow books or ideas from other countries that might bring change. Some people in Spain still wanted to learn about these new ideas, but it was very difficult.

Italy

Ideas about changing the Catholic Church reached Italy in the 1520s, but they did not catch on. Leaders of the Catholic Church worked hard to stop these ideas.

Slovenia

A leader named Primož Trubar was important for the Protestant Church in Slovenia. He wrote the first books in the Slovene language.

Greece

For a short time, some leaders in the Eastern Orthodox Church in Greece adopted ideas from the Western Church. However, these changes did not last long, and the Orthodox Church later rejected them.

Spread

The Reformation began in 1517 and grew until around 1620. It spread across Europe and changed many places. In 1620, a big battle called the Battle of White Mountain affected Protestants in Bohemia, which is now part of the Czech Republic.

The Thirty Years' War started in 1618 and caused changes in Central Europe. Even after the war ended with the Peace of Westphalia, some areas still faced challenges.

Conclusion and legacy

There is no single agreement on when the Reformation ended. Different views suggest various dates or periods, and some believe it never truly ended. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 officially ended religious conflicts between two groups, allowing rulers to choose between two main Christian beliefs for their states. Other events like the Counter-Reformation or the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 are also considered possible endings. From a Catholic view, the Second Vatican Council marked the end of the Counter-Reformation.

The Reformation led to many changes. In areas that stayed Catholic, some followers of the new beliefs lived secretly. Travel between countries became harder due to religious differences. Wars such as the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) caused many deaths. Laws in many places discriminated against certain religious groups until later centuries.

The Reformation also brought positive changes. It helped spread literacy and the use of the printing press. Many new ideas in education, work, and society came from these changes. Today, Protestant beliefs are one of the largest Christian groups worldwide.

Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648

The Reformation led to conflicts known as the European wars of religion. The Thirty Years' War (1618–48) was a major conflict that greatly affected Germany. Two main beliefs about the peace that ended this war were:

• All rulers would follow the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, choosing between Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism for their states.
• Christians could practice their faith publicly at certain times and privately whenever they wished, even if it was different from their ruler's belief.

This peace also reduced the political power of a major Christian leader in Europe.

Consequences of the Reformation

In countries that stayed Catholic, some followers of the new beliefs lived secretly. Travel between countries became harder due to religious differences. Wars such as the French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) caused many deaths. Many places made laws that treated certain religious groups unfairly, which only changed much later.

Radical Reformation

Main article: Radical Reformation

In parts of Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, many people supported Radical Reformation ideas even though they faced persecution. These groups believed in adult baptism, following the New Testament, and living peaceful lives, among other ideas.

Literacy

The Reformation helped spread literacy and the use of the printing press. Martin Luther's translation of the Bible into German was very important for the German language. Many religious books and pamphlets were printed, spreading new ideas across Europe. By 1530, over 10,000 publications existed with ten million copies.

Outcomes

Protestant beliefs led to many changes in culture, education, and society. Some outcomes include:

Human capital formation

Claims include:

• Higher literacy rates
• Lower gender gaps in school enrollment
• Higher primary school enrollment
• Better educational performance

Protestant ethic

Main article: Protestant work ethic

Claims include:

• More hours worked
• Different attitudes about work
• Lower life satisfaction when unemployed
• Pro-market attitudes

Economic development

Claims include:

• Different levels of income and jobs
• Growth of Protestant cities
• Greater entrepreneurship
• Different social ethics

Modern states

Claims include:

• Development of the state system
• Formation of advocacy movements
• Impact on Western legal tradition
• Emergence of professional bureaucracies
• Establishment of state churches
• Social welfare regimes
• Separation of church and state
• Resistance theory
• Mixed government and separation of powers

World demographics

Today, Protestant beliefs are one of the largest Christian groups worldwide, with many followers across the globe.

Historiography

Historians now look at the Reformation from many angles, studying not just leaders but also everyday people and their beliefs.

Music and art

Further information: Protestantism § Arts

The Reformation influenced music and art in many ways. Music became important in Protestant beliefs, with hymns and songs helping spread new ideas. Both Protestant and Catholic groups used music for religious purposes.