Saxons

The Saxons were a group of people who lived long ago in what is now northern Germany. They lived between the lower Rhine and Elbe rivers. The Saxons were part of the larger Germanic peoples and spoke West Germanic dialects. Their neighbors included the Franks, Thuringians, Frisians, Angles, and Slavic-speaking groups like the Obotrites.

For a long time, the Saxons were not all together as one group. They were led by local leaders called "satraps". Their history became better known in the 8th century when they fought the Frankish emperor Charlemagne. After many years of fighting called the Saxon Wars, Charlemagne defeated the Saxons. They were then made to join the Carolingian empire and later became a Duchy of Saxony in the Holy Roman Empire.

Before they were one group, the name "Saxons" was also used for people who lived near the coast and sometimes attacked others. These people included Frisians, Angles, and Jutes. The word "Saxon" did not mean one special tribe at that time.

Today, the Saxons do not exist as a separate group anymore, but their name is still used in places like Lower Saxony in Germany. Their language, Low German, was once spoken by many people in northern Europe but is now used less, as more people speak Dutch and German.

Terminology

The name "Saxons" may come from a type of knife called a seax in Old English and sahs in Old High German. The word "Saxon" first appeared in writing to talk about coastal raiders who attacked the Roman Empire from areas north of the Rhine. These raiders were like later Viking groups and included Frisians, Angles, and Jutes from places now known as the Netherlands to Denmark.

Many of these early Saxons later settled in parts of what is now northern France and England. Over time, England was sometimes called the Saxon homeland. Writers from the 8th century, like Bede and the author of the Ravenna Cosmography, called the Saxons in Germany the "old Saxons." The Saxons who settled in England became part of a new group known as the Anglo-Saxons, mixing with local Romano-British people and others from the North Sea area. The term "Anglo-Saxon" started being used to tell the difference between these groups and the Saxons who stayed in Germany.

History

Possible mention in Ptolemy (2nd century AD)

Ptolemy’s Geographia, written in the 2nd century, is sometimes thought to be the first mention of the Saxons. Some versions of this book talk about a tribe called Saxones near the lower Elbe River, and also three islands called the Saxon islands. However, other versions call this tribe Axones. Some historians think Saxones might be a mistake for another tribe called Aviones. Other historians think Saxones is the right name. For most historians who believe Ptolemy mentioned Saxons, it is surprising that they become much more important in records from the 3rd century.

Saxon raiders (3rd and 4th centuries)

The first clear mentions of Saxons come from the 4th century, but some of these talk about events in the 3rd century. After Ptolemy, the oldest mention of Saxons is in the Laterculus Veronensis from about 314 AD. It lists Saxons among other peoples under the power of the Roman Empire. Roman historian Eutropius said Saxon and Frankish raiders attacked the North Sea coast near Boulogne-sur-Mer around 285 AD. The Panegyrici Latini, written soon after, mention Franks, Chamavi, and Frisians, but not Saxons. These groups entered the Rhine and Scheldt rivers within the empire and controlled them for decades. The Roman military built a line of forts called the Litus Saxonicum, or Saxon Shore, around England. The Notitia Dignitatum from about 400 AD shows this existed by then. It also lists a Saxon military unit, the Ala prima Saxonum, stationed in what is now Lebanon and northern Israel. This unit existed by 363 AD when Roman emperor Julian used them against the Persian empire. Roman military items from the 4th and 5th centuries have been found in northern Germany, showing soldiers who served the empire returned home.

Before becoming emperor, Julian mentioned Saxons as allies of the rebel emperor Magnentius in 350 AD. In 357/8 AD, Julian fought Saxons in the Rhine region. Historian Zosimus said Saxons, who were very brave and strong, sent out a group called the Quadi against Roman lands but were blocked by Franks. These Quadi used boats to reach Batavia in the Rhine delta. Historians think Quadi might be a mistake for Chamavi, who were usually listed as Franks. This suggests the term Saxon might not have meant a specific group but rather groups who attacked by boat.

Several more records from the 4th century mention Saxons:

Historian Ammianus Marcellinus says Britain was troubled by Scoti, Picts, Attacotti, and Saxons. Roman officer Count Theodosius led a campaign to regain control in Britain. An inscription in Stobi, North Macedonia, calls Theodosius the terror of Saxony, likely meaning Britain. A poetic account links his battle with Saxons to the Orkney islands, but he probably also fought Saxons in the Rhine delta.
In Gaul in 370 AD, Saxons invaded the maritime districts. Emperor Valentinian’s forces tricked and defeated them.
In 373 AD, Saxons were defeated at a place called Deuso in Frankish territory.
Before Emperor Magnus Maximus died in 388 AD, he was attacked by Franks and Saxons as punishment for rebuilding a synagogue in Rome.
In 393 AD, Saxons died as gladiators in Rome.

Saxons were often noted for using boats in their raids, though some attacks were in the Rhine-Meuse delta region. Special mentions of scary 4th-century Saxon coastal attacks come from Ammianus and the poet Claudian.

An early rough mention of continental Saxons north of the Rhine comes from Hilarion (291-371 AD), who said the Frankish homeland was between the Saxons and Alemanni, placing Saxons north of the Franks.

5th century

In the 5th century, records about Saxons mainly connect them with Britain and Gaul. The term Saxon was still probably used for northern raiders in general, not a specific people. Their reputation for shocking coastal raids continued. In the late 5th century, Sidonius Apollinaris wrote a dramatic description of Saxon raiding to a friend posted in Saintonge near Bordeaux.

Byzantine writer Procopius, writing in the 6th century, describes three large nations in Brittia: Angles, Frisians, and Britons, but does not mention Saxons. Between the Rhine and southern Denmark, Procopius believed there was a kingdom of the Warini.

Roman general Stilicho is believed to have reorganized defenses against Saxons in Britain and northern Gaul. Later, crises in Italy, Gaul, Iberia, and North Africa meant no military resources were available for Britain. The Chronica Gallica of 452 says Britain was ravaged by Saxon invaders in 409 or 410 AD. The Romano-British citizens expelled their Roman officials and never rejoined the Roman Empire. Procopius states that after the overthrow of Constantine III in 411 AD, “the Romans never succeeded in recovering Britain, but it remained from that time under tyrants.”

In 441–442 AD, the Chronica Gallica of 452 mentions Saxons ruling the British provinces. 6th-century British historian Gildas knew of these events from his grandparents. Gildas says a Saxon force based in east Britain was invited to help defend against raids by Picts and Scots. They revolted over pay and plundered the whole country, starting a long war the Romano-British eventually won. However, Britain was divided into corrupt “tyrannies.” By Bede’s time, most of England was ruled by Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

In France during the 460s, a chronicle fragment in Gregory of Tours’ History of the Franks mentions battles involving one Adovacrius, who led Saxons based on islands near the Loire. He took hostages at Angers but was defeated by Roman and Frankish forces led by Childeric I. Though unclear, many historians think Adovacrius might be the same as Odoacer, future king of Italy.

Merovingian period

Compared to mentions of early Saxon raiders in Britain or Gaul, there are few mentions of Saxons in Germany before the 8th century. Records are also complicated because Saxons in modern Germany might not have been united into one political group. It is unclear if some early continental “Saxons” could also be called Warini, Frisians, or Thuringians. Still, some records from Merovingian times clearly talk about Saxons in what is now Northern Germany, north of the Franks.

Around 531 AD, Franks led by Theuderic I conquered the independent kingdom of Thuringia, which became a kingdom under Frankish rule. Later medieval writers claimed early Saxons helped the Franks, even bringing them from England, but no contemporary sources mention this, and historians doubt there was any conflict between Saxons and Thuringia.
During Theudebert I’s reign (534-548 AD), Procopius described the area between the Rhine and Denmark as inhabited not by Saxons but by a Warini kingdom. Their king Hermegisclus allied with and married Theudebert’s sister Theudechild.
In 555 AD, after Theudebert’s son Theudebald died, his grandfather Theuderic’s half-brother Clothar I inherited rule over the Rhine regions. Gregory of Tours and Marius of Avenches report Saxons “revolted,” and Clothar led an army in 556 AD to ravage Saxony and Thuringia. Thuringia had supported the Saxons. In a separate incident, Gregory says Chlothar fought Saxons stirred up by his brother Childebert I to attack his territory as far as Deutz on the Rhine. Springer argues this might not have been one incident or one group of Saxons, since Thuringia is far from Deutz. Gregory says Chlothar was forced to fight because Franks didn’t want to negotiate, and the Franks were beaten. Later records show some Saxons began paying tribute to Austrasian kings during Chlothar’s reign.
Sigebert I, son of Clothar I and ruler of Austrasia until 575 AD, was praised by poet Venantius Fortunatus for defeating the “Thuringian Saxons.” Springer suggests this distinguished mainland Saxons from Anglo-Saxons in Britain.
The chronicle of Fredegar says the Varni or Warni rebelled against Merovingian Franks in 594 AD and were brutally defeated by Childebert II in 595 AD “so that few survived.”
In 612 AD, Theuderic II attacked his brother Theudebert II at Zülpich with Saxons, Thuringians, and others from east of the Rhine.
Heroic stories from the 620s, written centuries later, tell of Chlothar II and his defeat of Saxons led by Berthoald near the Weser. Dagobert I, Chlothar’s son, was also involved.
In 632 AD, Dagobert I met Saxon messengers in Mainz during war with the Wends under Samo, who were attacking Thuringia. These Saxons negotiated to end a tribute of 500 cows per year in return for defending against Wends.

There were also Saxon populations not in England or future Saxony.

In 568/9 AD, some Saxons lived in Sigebert II’s Austrasian kingdom, possibly in Champagne, and joined the Lombards in Italy under Alboin, settling there for some time. Sigebert allowed a Suevian group to replace them in Austrasia. In 572 AD, they returned from Italy, raiding southeastern Gaul as far as Stablo (now Estoublon), and were defeated by Gallo-Roman general Mummolus. They were allowed to return to Italy, gather families and belongings, and return north. After plundering again, they were stopped at the Rhône by Mummolus and forced to pay compensation. At home, they were angry about Suevian settlers and refused to negotiate. Gregory of Tours claims divine intervention let the smaller Suebian group defeat the Saxons in two battles.
One notable Saxon group lived on the Normandy coast near Bayeux. In 589 AD, Saxons from the Bessin region near Bayeux wore Breton hair at Fredegund’s orders and fought with them against Guntram. From 626 AD, Dagobert I used Bessin Saxons in campaigns against the Basques. Later documents in 843 and 846 AD mention a pagus called Otlinga Saxonia in the Bessin region, but Otlinga’s meaning is unclear.
In southwestern France in the late 6th century, Chulderic the Saxon became Duke north of the Garonne for Childeric II, after being a subject of King Guntram. A century later, Aeghyna, Duke of Gascony, died in 638 AD. Both were likely Bayeux Saxons, possibly from Britain.
Though not in historical sources, an early Saxon settlement may have been near Boulogne-sur-Mer in Pas-de-Calais, leaving place names ending in -thun.
In 673 AD, King Wamba of the Visigoths drove out an invading army of Franks and Saxons from Septimania, then under Visigothic rule.

The Saxons and the Arnulfings

The continental Saxons seem to have unified by the late 8th century, partly due to interactions with Frankish kingdoms. Charlemagne’s ancestors, the Arnulfings, took control of the Austrasian Frankish kingdom and sought power over peoples to the east, including Saxons and Frisians. They pressured Saxons and Frisians to convert to Christianity. In 804 AD, Charlemagne conquered the Saxons and incorporated them into the Frankish empire as a Stem Duchy, similar to older ones though no evidence it was previously a single kingdom. The Duchy of Saxony (804–1296 AD) covered Westphalia, Eastphalia, Angria, and Nordalbingia, roughly modern Holstein and parts of Schleswig-Holstein.

In the 690s AD, Bede reported the pagan Saxons invaded the Boructuari near Frisia while Anglo-Saxon missionary Saint Suibert worked there. This area is believed to be the Roman-era Bructeri near the Lippe River.
Also in the 690s, Bede says the Two Ewalds were killed in Saxony while trying to convert a local ruler, with support from Pepin of Herstal, ruler of Frankish Austrasia.
In 715 AD, Frankish annals say Saxons took control of Hattuaria, later the Frankish country near Cleves and Xanten between Rhine and Maas, possibly on the other side of the Rhine. It was named after the Chattuarii, a Roman-era Frankish tribe north of the Rhine in the 4th century.
In 718 AD, Charles Martel invaded Saxony as far as the Weser. He campaigned there again in 720, 724, 738, and possibly 722 and 728 AD.
In the 730s AD, Bede wrote his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, mentioning the Angles’ land was once between Saxons and Jutes but is now empty.
Also around this time, the Ravenna Cosmography was written, calling the continental homeland of British Saxons “Old Saxony” with leader Ansehis. It describes Saxon lands on the Ocean coast between Frisia and Danes, bordering Thuringia with rivers Ems, Pader, Lippe, and Leine. It cites an earlier Gothic geographer Marcomir.
In 743 AD, Charles’ sons Pepin the Short and Carloman marched against Odilo of Bavaria, then turned north to Saxony, which had sent troops to support Bavaria. After conquering the castrum of Ho(o)hseoburg, they forced Saxon duke Theoderic to surrender at a placitum there. They invaded Saxony again in 744 AD, capturing Theoderic.
In 748 AD, Pepin the Short marched through Thuringia to Saxony while his half-brother Grifo tried to seize power in Bavaria. The part of Saxony beyond Thuringia is called “North Swabia” in the Annals of Metz, where many Saxons converted to Christianity. The Chronicle of Fredegar claims they agreed to resume paying a tribute of 500 cows.
In 751 AD, Pepin was crowned king and in 753 AD attacked Saxons northeast of the Rhine around Bad Iburg and Bad Oeynhausen.
In 758 AD, Pepin attacked Saxony again and agreed to a tribute of 330 horses per year from defeated Saxons.

Charlemagne's Saxon Wars

Main article: Saxon Wars

The Saxons were conquered by Charlemagne after long annual campaigns, the Saxon Wars (772–804 AD). Defeat brought enforced baptism and conversion, plus union with the Frankish empire. Their sacred tree or pillar, Irminsul, was destroyed. Charlemagne deported 10,000 Nordalbingian Saxons to Neustria and gave their lands in Wagria (modern Plön and Ostholstein districts) to the loyal king of the Abotrites. Einhard, Charlemagne’s biographer, ends this conflict:

The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the king; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion, and union with the Franks to form one people.

The Saxons resisted becoming Christians and joining the Frankish kingdom. In 776 AD, Saxons promised to convert and vow loyalty but, during Charlemagne’s campaign in Hispania in 778 AD, Saxons advanced to Deutz on the Rhine and plundered along the river. This pattern repeated when Charlemagne was distracted. Decades later, Christianized Saxons joined the People’s Crusade, with some possibly traveling through the Rhineland and an attested Saxon-Bohemian regiment dispersed by the Kingdom of Hungary around 1096 AD.

The Duchy of Saxony

See also: Duchy of Saxony and [List of rulers of Saxony § Saxony as part of Frankish kingdom(s)](/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Saxony#Saxony_as_part_of_Frankish_kingdom(s)

Under Carolingian rule, Saxons were reduced to tributary status. Evidence shows Saxons and Slavic tributaries like the Abodrites and Wends often provided troops to Carolingian overlords. Dukes of Saxony became kings (Henry I, the Fowler, 919 AD) and later the first emperors (Henry’s son, Otto I, the Great) of Germany in the 10th century but lost this position in 1024 AD. The duchy divided in 1180 AD when Duke Henry the Lion refused to follow his cousin, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, into war in Lombardy.

During the High Middle Ages, under Salian emperors and later the Teutonic Knights, German settlers moved east of the Saale into the area of the western Slavic tribe, the Sorbs. The Sorbs were gradually Germanised. This region later became Saxony, initially called the March of Meissen. Rulers of Meissen acquired control of the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg in 1423 and applied the name Saxony to their whole kingdom. Since then, this part of eastern Germany has been called Saxony, causing misunderstanding about the original Saxon homeland, with a central part now in Lower Saxony.

Language

Main article: Old Saxon

The Old Saxon language is known from the 8th century CE, after the Saxons were conquered by Charlemagne. It is a West Germanic language and is closely related to Old English and Old Frisian. We learn about this language from two old stories called the Heliand and the Old Saxon Genesis, along with a few other small texts and names. Over time, Old Saxon changed into what we now call Middle Low German and then into modern Low German.

Culture

Bede, a writer from around the year 730, described the Saxons as a group with several leaders instead of one king. The land was divided into three areas: Westphalia, Eastphalia, and Angria, each with many smaller regions.

The Saxons had three main social groups, besides slaves. The highest group, called the edhilingui, were noble warriors. The frilingi were descendants of allies and freed people. The lazzi were descendants of people from areas the Saxons conquered. Marriages between these groups were not allowed.

Important decisions were made at an annual meeting in Marklo, where representatives from each group would discuss laws, settle disputes, and decide on matters of war or peace.

Saxon as a demonym

In some old Celtic languages, words for describing English people come from the Latin word Saxones. For example, in Scottish Gaelic, the word Sassenach was used for English people. Similar words exist in Irish (Sasanach), Welsh (Saeson), and Cornish (Sowsnek).

In Romanian, the word Sași refers to German settlers who moved to Transylvania in the 12th century. Some of these people later moved to nearby Moldavia.

The Finns and Estonians now use words related to "Saxon" to mean all of Germany and Germans. In Finnish, sakset means "scissors" and comes from an old Saxon sword called a seax. In Estonian, saks can mean a wealthy person, showing the influence of Baltic Germans, who were often of Saxon background.

Saxony as a later toponym

After Henry the Lion lost his power, the lands of the Saxons split into different parts. The name "Saxony" went to the lands of the Ascanian family. This made a difference between Lower Saxony, where the Saxons first lived, and Upper Saxony, which belonged to the House of Wettin. Over time, Upper Saxony became just called Saxony. Today, this area is in the eastern part of Central Germany in the Federal Republic of Germany, including the regions of Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt.