Umayyad state of Córdoba

The Emirate of Córdoba, and from 929, the Caliphate of Córdoba, was an Arab Islamic state ruled by the Umayyad dynasty from 756 to 1031. It covered most of the Iberian Peninsula (known to Muslims as al-Andalus), the Balearic Islands, and parts of North Africa. Its capital was Córdoba (called Qurṭubah at the time). It began as an independent emirate and later became a caliphate when Abd al-Rahman III declared himself caliph in 929.

The state was founded by Abd al-Rahman I, an Umayyad prince who escaped after his family was defeated during the Abbasid revolution. For nearly 300 years, the state grew and prospered. It eventually ended during a civil war between the family of caliph Hisham II and followers of Almanzor, a powerful official. By 1031, the caliphate split into several smaller independent Muslim kingdoms called taifa.

During its time, the Umayyad state of Córdoba was known for its trade and rich culture. Many famous buildings were built in a style called Andalusi architecture. This period had a big impact on history.

Political history

Background

See also: Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula

The Visigothic Kingdom ruled Iberia for over two centuries before it was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate. The Umayyads had made small attacks on southern Iberia before, but they began their full conquest in April 711. An army led by Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed into Southern Hispania from North Africa through the Strait of Gibraltar. After crossing, Tariq’s troops defeated Visigothic forces at the Battle of Guadalete. Roderic, the last Visigothic king, was killed, which opened the way for the Umayyads to take over Hispania. They made the Iberian Peninsula a province (wilāya) of their empire, with their capital in Córdoba. The rulers of this province used the titles wāli or emīr.

Emirate

In 756, Abd al-Rahman I, a prince from the deposed Umayyad royal family, refused to follow the Abbasid Caliphate and became the independent emir of Córdoba. He had been hiding for six years after the Umayyads lost power in Damascus in 750 to the Abbasids. Wanting to regain power, he defeated the existing Muslim rulers of the area who had opposed Umayyad and Abbasid rule. Abd al-Rahman I united different local fiefdoms into one independent emirate. His campaigns to unite al-Andalus spread into Toledo, Zaragoza, Pamplona, and Barcelona, and it took him twenty-five years to finish.

Even though this realm was independent from Baghdad, its rulers used the titles of emir or sultan until the mid-10th century and still recognized the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad.

For the next century and a half, his descendants ruled as emirs of Córdoba, with control over most of al-Andalus and sometimes parts of western Maghreb. True control was often uncertain, especially in the border areas with Christian kingdoms, where power depended on the skill of the emir. For example, the power of emir Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi (around 900) did not stretch beyond Córdoba itself.

Raids helped grow the emirate’s land, such as one to Corsica in 806. In 818, people in the al-Rabad area of Córdoba rebelled against Al-Hakam I. After the revolt was put down, the people were forced to leave. Some moved to Fez or Alexandria, while others formed the Emirate of Crete in the 820s.

Abd al-Rahman I used Berbers and the saqaliba to build a permanent army of 40,000 to stop the conflicts that had troubled the emirate. In the time of Emir Al-Hakam I, a guard of 3,000 riders and 2,000 foot soldiers was made up of Slavic slaves. Under Emir Muhammad I, the army grew to 35,000 to 40,000 fighters, half of them Syrian soldiers.

An Umayyad expedition led by ʿIṣām al-Ḫawlānī took over the Balearic Islands (the 'Eastern Islands') and added them to Umayyad rule under emir Abdullah around 902–903.

Caliphate

Abd al-Rahman III became ruler in 912 and faced the Fatimid Caliphate, a rival Islamic empire in North Africa based in Tunis. The Fatimids claimed to be caliphs, challenging the Abbasids’ religious authority. In 929, Abd al-Rahman III took the title of caliph, challenging the Fatimids’ claim. Inside the country, the Spanish Umayyads saw themselves as closer to Muhammad and more legitimate than the Abbasids, even though their rule was not accepted outside al-Andalus and its allies in North Africa.

Fatimid attacks were stopped when Abd al-Rahman III took control of Melilla in 927, Ceuta in 931, and Tangier in 951. In 948, the Idrisid leader Abul-Aish Ahmad recognized the caliphate but refused to let them take Tangier. The Umayyads attacked Tangier in 949, defeated Abul-Aish, and took over the rest of northern Morocco.

Abd al-Rahman III built stronger ties with Berber tribes in North Africa, Christian kingdoms to the north, West Francia, East Francia, and the Byzantine Empire. He also brought the Christian kingdoms in the north under his control using military force. The army under Abd al-Rahman III had between 30,000 and 50,000 soldiers.

The caliphate grew very wealthy during Abd al-Rahman III’s rule, with public money reaching up to 6,245,000 dinars, more than before. The money was divided into three parts: paying for the army, keeping public buildings, and the needs of the caliph.

Abd al-Rahman III was succeeded by his 46-year-old son, Al-Hakam II, in 961. Al-Hakam II continued his father’s policies toward Christian kings and North African rebels. Al-Hakam II relied more on his advisers because the caliphate was less wealthy, and there was less money available. This style of leadership suited Al-Hakam II because he was more interested in learning and scholarship than ruling. The caliphate reached its highest point in learning and scholarship under Al-Hakam II.

Another Fatimid attack on Morocco happened in 958, led by the general, Jawhar, and Al-Hassan II had to recognize the Fatimids. The Umayyads sent their general, Ghalib, to attack Idrisid Morocco in 973. By 974, Al-Hassan II was brought to Córdoba, and the remaining Idrisids recognized Umayyad rule.

Reforms under Almanzor

The death of Al-Hakam II in 976 marked the start of the end of the caliphate’s power. Al-Hakam was succeeded by his only son, Hisham II. Al-Hakam’s top adviser, Almanzor, declared the 10-year-old boy caliph and swore loyalty to him.

Almanzor had great influence over Subh, Hisham II’s mother and ruler. Almanzor kept Hisham isolated in Córdoba, removed opposition, and allowed Berbers from Africa to move to al-Andalus to grow his support. While Hisham II was caliph, he was mostly a figurehead.

In 996, Almanzor sent an attack force to Morocco. After three months of fighting, his forces pulled back to Tangier. Almanzor then sent a strong force under his son Abd al-Malik, whose armies fought near Tangier. The Umayyads entered Fes on 13 October 998 after the city gates were opened.

Almanzor continued the military changes started by Al-Hakam and others. He made the regular army more professional, which gave him military power in the capital and made sure there were always troops ready for campaigns. Making the army professional meant using fewer local soldiers and instead paying professional troops with taxes, which also freed Córdoban people from having to serve in the army. Almanzor brought in more saqaliba and Berbers. He also created new army units that were only loyal to him and used them to control the capital.

Almanzor ended the old system of army units led by tribal leaders. This system was fading because there were not enough Arab soldiers and the frontier areas had become more like independent states. A new system of mixed units without clear leaders, following orders from government officials, took its place.

The growth in the army and its professionalism cost more money and encouraged more attacks so soldiers could be paid with loot and land. Land given to soldiers had to pay taxes and was no longer used just for border defense.

The core of the new army was made up of Maghrebi Berber soldiers. Arabs, Berbers, and Slavs in the army were kept apart by Almanzor to keep his power and control.

The large numbers of North African horse soldiers pushed foot soldiers to sieges and guarding forts. This change meant whole tribes, especially Berber riders, were moved to the Iberian Peninsula.

At the time, al-Andalus was called Dar Jihad, or "country of jihad". It attracted many eager volunteers, who were a small but important part of the army. Almanzor’s personal guard was made up of Christian hired soldiers who also fought in his attacks on Christian lands.

Different stories say Almanzor’s armies were anywhere from twenty thousand to six hundred thousand strong. Other modern studies say the army was between 50,000 and 90,000 under Almanzor. It is likely that the leader’s armies never had more than twenty thousand men. Until the eleventh century, no Muslim army on an attack ever had more than thirty thousand soldiers.

The main weapon for quick attacks that surprised enemies was light horse soldiers. To fight them, the Castilians created the role of “villain knights” by giving land to free men who agreed to keep a horse to increase the number of riders through the Fuero de Castrojeriz of 974. For similar reasons, the Barcelonan count Borrell II created the role of homes of paratge who got special military status by fighting Córdoban forces on horses – after losing their capital in the fall of 985.

Factories around Córdoba made weapons. The city was said to make 1,000 bows and 20,000 arrows every month, and 1,300 shields and 3,000 supplies for campaigns every year.

Unlike the navy under Abd al-Rahman III, under Almanzor it was used to carry ground troops, such as between the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula. This was also seen with Alcácer do Sal’s ships in the attack against Santiago de Compostela in 997. Like in the army, Almanzor hired Berbers he could trust. In running it, he trusted saqalibas more than local officials. The navy was strengthened with a network of ports and a new base on the Atlantic, in Alcácer do Sal, which protected the city of Coimbra, taken back in the 980s. It was the start of an attack on Santiago. On the Mediterranean coast, naval defense was centered at the base of al-Mariya, now Almería. The dockyards of the navy were built in Tortosa in 944. The navy also had a big budget under Almanzor.

In 985, the navy attacked the Catalans. During the Catalan attack, Gausfred I, Count of Empurias and Roussillon tried to raise an army to help but several groups of Berber sailors threatened their coasts, forcing them to stay and defend their lands. In 997 the al-Andalusi navy hit the Galician coast.

Almanzor removed people who might oppose his changes, such as killing Ghalib. He also replaced the ruler of Zaragoza after he worked with his oldest son to put in a member of the same family, the Banu Tujib. The navy leader was also poisoned in January 980 and replaced.

Land travel routes had strong forts, and important people controlled the messages. Messengers were hired and trained specially to carry Almanzor’s messages and to pass on the official reports his foreign offices wrote about the yearly attacks.

Collapse

The title of caliph became just a name, with no real power. Almanzor’s rule increased the importance of the army, both as a sign of his power and a way to make sure taxes were paid. The court of the chamberlain also began to rival that of the caliph. Almanzor’s changes also split the people into two unequal groups: a large group of everyday people who paid taxes and a small group of professional soldiers, mostly from outside the land and not very loyal to the government.

After Almanzor died in 1002, the systems he built slowly stopped working because of fights between military and political groups trying to take control.

The power of the chamberlain stayed with Almanzor’s sons, Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar, who died in 1008, and Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo. While Abd al-Rahman was leading an attack on the Christian north, a revolt broke out in Córdoba and removed him, and he was killed when he tried to take power back.

The death of Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo in 1009 started the Fitna of al-Andalus, with different leaders claiming to be the new caliph, violence across the caliphate, and attacks from the Hammudid dynasty. Córdoba’s forces also joined the civil war with groups of Christian hired soldiers. Because of constant fighting, the caliphate broke apart in 1031 into several separate lands taifas, including the Taifa of Córdoba, Taifa of Seville and Taifa of Zaragoza. The last Córdoban Caliph was Hisham III, who ruled from 1027 to 1031.

Society

Under Umayyad rule, many people in the area called al-Andalus started to speak Arabic and follow Islam. These became important parts of the culture there.

The population grew from about four million to around three million people by the year 1000. Córdoba, the capital city, became very large, possibly holding over 100,000 people, making it one of Europe’s biggest cities at the time.

People in al-Andalus included Arabs, Berbers, local people who converted to Islam, and others like Christians and Jews. Arabic became the main language, especially among the wealthy and powerful, while many still spoke their own local languages.

Islam became the most common religion, encouraged by leaders who helped spread it. Christians and Jews were allowed to practice their faiths but had some restrictions and paid special taxes. Over time, many local people chose to become Muslim, often for social and economic reasons.

The ruling class in Córdoba was mostly made up of Arabs and some others who gained power through political means.

Economy

The economy of al-Andalus grew strong by the end of the 8th century. In the 10th century, people made gold and silver coins, helped by gold from trans-Saharan trade. A new place to make money was set up at Madinat al-Zahra around 947 CE, but later moved back to Córdoba around 975–976 CE.

The state traded with other parts of the Islamic world. It sent out beautiful silk cloth and gave raw materials to places that had fewer natural resources. This trade helped people live better and brought in skilled workers. Córdoba also got money from taxes paid by Christian kingdoms to the north, which gave silver and slaves. One old report says that at the end of Abd al-Rahman III's rule, the state made about six and a half million dinars, though it’s not exactly clear what that means today in terms of purchasing power.

Jewish merchants were very important. They had trade networks all along the Mediterranean Sea. Because there were no banks, they had to trust each other a lot, often through family ties like marriage. This trust helped their business grow.

Farming also changed a lot. New crops like rice, hard wheat, bananas, watermelons, and oranges were grown. Better ways to water the land, like using norias (a kind of waterwheel), made farming better. This meant more food, healthier people, and more people moving in. Farmers could grow different crops and made more money. Some crops, like figs, were grown mainly to sell.

Culture

In the Umayyad state of Córdoba, people learned special manners and customs called adab, which were important in society. Women, including those in royal families, sometimes traveled to learn these customs and other arts.

The culture of Córdoba was influenced by places far away, like Syria and Baghdad. Musicians and artists brought new styles from these places. Córdoba became a center for learning, with people translating old books from Greek into Arabic, Latin, and Hebrew. Scholars studied many subjects, including medicine, science, and history.

Artists created beautiful objects like silk clothes, pottery, and carvings. Buildings were decorated with marble and colorful designs. The city had many libraries and schools, and people of different religions, like Christians and Jews, also helped make it a place of learning. Some women from rich families also learned to write poetry and study important texts.

Literature and scholarship

Córdoba was a center for learning and culture. People translated ancient books from Greek into Arabic, Latin, and Hebrew. Scholars studied many subjects, including religion, language, and science. The city had many libraries, and some had thousands of books. Poets wrote for the rulers, and others wrote about nature and love. Writers also told the history of the Umayyad rulers.

People of different religions, like Christians and Jews, contributed to the city's culture. One famous Jewish scholar helped build up Jewish learning in the city. Latin culture changed as more people spoke Arabic, but Latin was still used in religious services.

Some women from noble families learned to write poetry and study religion. Others worked as scribes and kept books for the rulers.

Arts

Artists in Córdoba made beautiful things like embroidered clothes, pottery, and carvings. They made special boxes from ivory with detailed designs. They also made fine silks, ceramics, and leather goods. Metalworkers created fountain spouts shaped like animals. Marble was used to decorate buildings with carved designs.

Architecture

Córdoba had many important buildings. The rulers lived in palaces, and one of the most famous was built outside the city. The Great Mosque of Córdoba was a big and beautiful place for worship. It had rows of columns and arches made of red brick and stone. Later rulers added more parts to the mosque, including a tall tower for the call to prayer.

The rulers also built a grand palace-city just outside Córdoba. It had halls for meetings, a mosque, gardens, and places for government work. Other cities in the region also got new mosques and fortresses during this time.

List of rulers

After the caliphate fell, several people said they were the rulers. The Hammudid rulers in places like Málaga and Algeciras claimed they were in charge. The last person to use this title was Pseudo-Hisham. He lived in Seville and died in 1059.