Yuan dynasty

The Yuan dynasty, officially the Great Yuan, was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China. It started in 1271 and ended in 1368 AD.

It was started by Kublai, who was the fifth ruler of the Mongol Empire. This was the first time a group that was not Han people ruled all of China proper.

Kublai Khan made the Yuan dynasty official in 1271. By 1279, he had taken control of all of China. His rule covered most of modern-day China and nearby lands.

Kublai Khan thought of himself as the ruler of China and also as the Great Khan of the whole Mongol Empire. He even listed his grandfather, Genghis Khan, as the founder of the dynasty. Some Yuan emperors could speak and write Chinese. Others used their own Mongolian language with a special script called the ʼPhags-pa script.

Name

See also: Names of China and Mongol Empire

In 1271, Kublai Khan named his new dynasty the Great Yuan. The name comes from an old Chinese book called the I Ching. In Mongolian, the dynasty was also called Dai Ön Ulus.

At this time, the leaders of the Yuan dynasty wanted to be seen as the true rulers of all of China and the whole Mongol Empire. Some people today also call the Yuan dynasty the "Mongol dynasty" because it was led by Mongol rulers.

History

Main article: History of the Yuan dynasty

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Yuan dynasty.

Background

Main articles: Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, Division of the Mongol Empire, Toluid Civil War, and Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty

Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes and became Great Khan in 1206. He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under Genghis' third son, Ögedei Khan, the Mongols took over the Jin dynasty in 1234, capturing most of northern China. Ögedei gave his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou, Hebei. Kublai listened to advice from Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan became Great Khan in 1251 after his brother Güyük. He gave Kublai control over Mongol lands in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, created paper money, brought back Chinese rituals, and supported policies that helped farming and trade. He made his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia, later called Shangdu.

Many Han Chinese and Khitan people joined the Mongols to fight the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze, Liu Heima, and the Khitan Xiao Zhala joined and led groups in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ögedei Khan. There were groups of Han and Khitan soldiers, each with 10,000 troops.

Möngke Khan started a campaign against the Song dynasty in southern China. The Mongol force that attacked southern China was much larger than the one they sent to the Middle East in 1256. He died in 1259 during the Siege of Diaoyucheng. Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he heard that his brother, Ariq Böke, was claiming to be Great Khan. Kublai held a meeting in Kaiping and was chosen as Great Khan. Another meeting in Mongolia chose Ariq Böke as Great Khan, starting a civil war. Kublai relied on his Chinese subjects to supply his army. He made his government like traditional Chinese dynasties and used the Chinese era name of Zhongtong. Ariq Böke could not get enough supplies and gave up in 1264. All the western khanates (Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate) became separate, and only the Ilkhans recognized Kublai as Great Khan. The civil war split the Mongol Empire.

Rule of Kublai Khan

Early years

The early years of Kublai Khan's rule were difficult. Ögedei's grandson Kaidu refused to obey Kublai and threatened the western border. The Song dynasty was still there in the south. Kublai made the northeast border safe in 1259 by making the prince Wonjong of the Kingdom of Goryeo (Korea) its ruler, so it became a Mongol state. Kublai married one of his daughters to the prince to strengthen their relationship. Korean women were sent to the Yuan court as tribute, and one became the empress. Kublai also faced unrest. Li Tan, the son-in-law of a powerful official, led a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After stopping the revolt, Kublai limited the power of Han advisers because he feared losing control.

Kublai's government after 1262 mixed Mongol and Chinese ways. He made reforms suggested by his Chinese advisers by organizing the government better, increasing paper money, and keeping control of salt and iron. He brought back the Imperial Secretariat and kept the old Chinese local government structure. However, Kublai did not bring back the Confucian imperial examinations and divided Yuan society into classes, with Han people in the lowest class until he took over the Song dynasty and its people, who were in the fourth class. Kublai's Chinese advisers still had power, sometimes more than high officials, but their rank was not clear.

Founding the dynasty

Kublai moved the Mongol capital from Karakorum in Mongolia to Khanbaliq in 1264, building a new city near the old Jurchen capital Zhongdu, now modern Beijing, in 1266. In 1271, Kublai claimed the Mandate of Heaven and said that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan, like a traditional Chinese dynasty. The name of the dynasty comes from the I Ching and means the "origin of the universe" or a "primal force". Kublai made Khanbaliq the Daidu (大都; Dàdū; 'Great Capital') of the dynasty. The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to start a new time in Chinese history. By naming his dynasty, Kublai connected Mongol rule to the old Chinese dynasties. Kublai acted like a wise emperor by following Confucian rituals and honoring ancestors, while still being a leader from the steppes.

Kublai Khan supported trade, science, and culture. He helped the merchants of the Silk Road by protecting the Mongol postal system, building roads, giving loans for trade, and encouraging the use of paper jiaochao money. At first, the Mongols made coins, but later under Külüg Khan they used only paper money. It was during the rule of Toghon Temür that the government tried to bring back copper coins. The Pax Mongolica, or Mongol peace, allowed technologies, goods, and culture to spread between China and the West. Kublai extended the Grand Canal from southern China to Daidu in the north. Mongol rule was open under Kublai Khan. He welcomed visitors to his court, like the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who wrote the most famous European account of Yuan China. Marco Polo's travels inspired others like Christopher Columbus to find a way to the Far East for its wealth.

Military conquests and campaigns

After making his government stronger in northern China, Kublai wanted to expand, following Mongol and Chinese traditions. He attacked the Song dynasty in the south. Kublai surrounded Xiangyang (襄阳) from 1268 to 1273, the last place blocking him from the rich Yangtze River area. He tried to invade Japan in 1274, but it failed. The Duan family ruling the Kingdom of Dali in Yunnan agreed to be under the Yuan dynasty and kept their throne, helping the Yuan against the Song dynasty.

The Duan family still ruled Dali with some freedom during the Yuan dynasty. The Tusi leaders and local tribes in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan agreed to Yuan rule and kept their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling the Chiefdom of Bozhou, recognized by the Song and Tang dynasties, was also recognized by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty, and later by the Ming dynasty. The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua was recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They came from the Three Kingdoms era king Huoji who famously helped Zhuge Liang against Meng Huo. They were also recognized by the Ming dynasty.

In 1276 Kublai took over the Song capital of Hangzhou (杭州), the richest city in China, after the Southern Song Han Chinese Emperor Gong of Song gave up. Emperor Gong married a Mongol princess from the royal Borjigin family. Song loyalists ran away from the capital and made a young child emperor, Emperor Bing of Song, Emperor Gong's younger brother. The Yuan forces led by Han Chinese General Zhang Hongfan defeated the Song loyalists at the battle of Yamen in 1279. The last Song emperor died, ending the Song dynasty. Taking over the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years.

The Yuan dynasty made the "Han Army" from former Jin soldiers and a group called the "Newly Submitted Army" from former Song soldiers.

Kublai's government had money problems after 1279. Wars and building projects used up the Mongol treasury. Trying to get and collect taxes was difficult because of corruption and scandals. More military failures followed the money problems. Kublai's second attack on Japan in 1281 failed because of bad weather. Kublai's attacks on Annam, Champa, and Java failed, but he won against Burma. These attacks were hurt by disease, bad weather, and land that was not good for the Mongols' horse soldiers. The Trần dynasty of Annam (Đại Việt) beat the Mongols at the Battle of Bạch Đằng in 1288. Annam, Burma, and Champa agreed to pay tribute to the Yuan dynasty.

Unrest threatened Kublai's rule. Kublai Khan put down revolts in Tibet and the northeast. His favorite wife died in 1281 and his chosen heir died in 1285. Kublai became unhappy and stayed away from his duties. He got sick in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294.

Successors after Kublai

For a more comprehensive list, see List of Yuan emperors.

Further information: List of Northern Yuan khans and Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)

Temür Khan

After taking Dali in 1253, the Duan family were made its leaders. Local leaders were made Tusi, recognized as officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing governments, mainly in Yunnan. However, choosing a successor was hard for the Yuan dynasty and caused fights later. This started at the end of Kublai's rule. Kublai named his oldest son, Zhenjin, as heir, but he died before Kublai in 1285. So, Zhenjin's third son, supported by his mother Kökejin and the minister Bayan, became emperor as Temür Khan, or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan continued much of what his grandfather started. He made peace with the western Mongol khanates and countries like Vietnam, which paid tribute for some years. However, corruption in the Yuan dynasty started during Temür Khan's rule.

Külüg Khan

Külüg Khan (Emperor Wuzong) became emperor after Temür Khan died. Unlike his predecessor, he did not follow Kublai's goals. Most importantly, he made "New Deals" focused on money changes. During his short rule from 1307 to 1311, the government had money problems, partly because of bad decisions by Külüg. By the time he died, China was in deep debt and people were unhappy with the Yuan court.

Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan

The fourth Yuan emperor, Buyantu Khan (born Ayurbarwada), was a good ruler. He was the first Yuan emperor to support mainstream Chinese culture after Kublai, which made some Mongol leaders unhappy. He was taught by Li Meng, a Confucian teacher. He made many changes, including ending the Department of State Affairs, which led to executing five top officials. Starting in 1313, he brought back the traditional imperial examinations for new officials, testing their knowledge of important history books. He also organized laws and published or translated many Chinese books and works.

Gegeen Khan and Yesün Temür

The Cloud Platform was made during the rule of Emperor Huizong by order of the emperor.

Emperor Gegeen Khan, Ayurbarwada's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father's policies to change the government using Confucian ideas, helped by his new grand chancellor Baiju. During his rule, the Da Yuan Tong Zhi (《大元通制》; ''Comprehensive Institutions of the Great Yuan''), a big collection of Yuan laws and rules started by his father, was officially announced. Gegeen was killed in a coup by five princes from a rival group, maybe steppe leaders who did not like Confucian changes. They put Yesün Temür (or Taidingdi) on the throne, and after trying to calm the princes and failing, he also was killed.

Before Yesün Temür's rule, China had been mostly free from big uprisings after Kublai's time. But Yuan control weakened in areas with many different ethnic groups. These uprisings and putting them down made the Yuan government’s money problems worse. The government had to sell offices and spend less on some things.

Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür

Main article: Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür

When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, Tugh Temür was called to Khanbaliq by the Qipchaq commander El Temür. He became emperor in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh became emperor in Shangdu (商都) with support from Yesün Temür's favorite helper Dawlat Shah. Tugh Temür, supported by princes and officers in Northern China and other parts, won the civil war against Ragibagh, called the War of the Two Capitals. After that, Tugh Temür gave up the throne to his brother Kusala, who was supported by Chagatai Khan Eljigidey, but Kusala died four days after a meal with Tugh Temür. He was possibly poisoned by El Temür, and Tugh Temür took the throne again. Tugh Temür mainly relied on the powerful official El Temür during the last three years of his rule. El Temür removed officials who supported Kusala and gave power to warlords, which showed the dynasty was declining.

Because El Temür controlled the government, Tugh Temür is remembered for his support of culture. He made many changes to honor Confucianism and Chinese culture. His most important cultural work was creating the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature (奎章閣學士院) in 1329 to "share Confucian culture with the Mongolian leaders" (儒教推崇). The academy made and published many books, but its biggest work was the Jingshi Dadian (經世大典), a big collection of rules. Tugh Temür supported Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucianism and also followed Buddhism.

Toghon Temür

Main article: Toghon Temür

After Tugh Temür died in 1332 and Rinchinbal (Emperor Ningzong) died the same year, the 13-year-old Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was brought back from exile in Koryo and became emperor. Even though El Temür had exiled Toghon Temür, after he returned, Bayan tried to use the new emperor to increase his own power. After Bayan led a coup against El Temür and El Temür died, Toghon Temür 1340 joined forces with Bayan's nephew Toqto'a, who disagreed with Bayan, and removed Bayan in a coup. This was when the adult emperor started to take part in government.

Toqto'a took control of the court. His first time in office showed new energy. He also began to show a new and positive direction in the central government. One of his successes was finishing the official histories of the Liao, Jin, and Song dynasties, completed in 1345. However, Toqto'a left his position with Toghon Temür's approval, ending his first time in office, and he did not return until 1349.

Decline of the empire

The last years of the Yuan dynasty were full of problems, hunger, and unhappiness. Over time, Kublai Khan's successors lost control over other Mongol lands, and the Mongols outside the Middle Kingdom thought they were too Chinese. They also lost influence in China. The later Yuan emperors had short rules and were full of fighting and arguments. They did not care about running the country, were separate from the army and the people, and China was split by arguments and unrest. Outlaws attacked the country without help from the weak Yuan armies.

From the late 1340s, people in the countryside suffered from natural problems like droughts, floods and hunger, and the government did not help, so people lost trust. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion started by Song loyalists grew into a big uprising and the Song loyalists made a new Song dynasty in 1351 with its capital at Kaifeng. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a big army to fight the Red Turban rebels, Toghon Temür dismissed him because he was afraid of betrayal. This made Toghon Temür lose power and weaken the central government. He had to depend on local military leaders and gradually lost interest in politics. He ran away north to Shangdu from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 when the Ming dynasty forces came close. The Ming dynasty was started by Zhu Yuanzhang in the south. Zhu Yuanzhang was a former leader in the Red Turban Song dynasty army and became emperor after the death of the Red Turban Song Emperor Han Lin'er, who tried to take back Khanbaliq but failed and died in Yingchang (in present-day Inner Mongolia) in 1370. Yingchang was taken by the Ming not long after his death. Some Yuan royal family members still live in Henan today.

The Prince of Liang, Basalawarmi started a small area of resistance to the Ming in Yunnan and Guizhou, but his forces were defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387, the last Yuan forces in Manchuria under Naghachu gave up to the Ming dynasty. The Yuan leftovers went to Mongolia after Yingchang fell to the Ming in 1370, where they kept the name Great Yuan (大元), known as the Northern Yuan dynasty.

Impact

During the Yuan dynasty, many new ideas and traditions grew. The Yuan people loved drama and stories, and they wrote many new books. They also brought new kinds of art and painting to China. The Yuan helped people from far away trade with China, bringing new foods like carrots and lemons.

The Yuan also built many things to help people. They made new roads and canals for travel and trade. They built big lakes and parks in their cities. One famous traveler, Marco Polo, visited China and told people in Europe about what he saw. The Yuan dynasty was the first time a group of people from outside of China ruled the whole country.

Government

The Yuan dynasty's government started when Kublai Khan ruled from 1260 to 1294. The government changed a little over time, but the main parts stayed the same until the dynasty ended in 1368.

Kublai Khan mixed many cultures into the government, including Hans, Khitans, Jurchens, Mongols, and Tibetan Buddhists. The Yuan government had three main parts: civil, military, and censorial offices. The Central Secretariat handled civil matters, the Privy Council managed the military, and the Censorate checked on everyone. The Ministry of Justice did not apply to Mongols and others called Semu. The Ministry of War was not very important.

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology of the Yuan dynasty

Mathematics

Further information: Chinese mathematics

During the Yuan dynasty, big steps were made in math. The mathematician Zhu Shijie solved hard math problems by using a special way. He wrote about this in a book called Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns, which also showed a famous math pattern called Pascal's triangle.

Another math expert, Guo Shoujing, used math to help make better calendars. He made a special calendar called Shoushi Li in 1281 to help people know when important events would happen.

Medicine

Doctors in the Yuan dynasty came from many places. They used herbs and special treatments to help people feel better. The government helped doctors and even started a special school for medicine. Chinese ways of healing, like acupuncture and using special plants, spread to other parts of the world.

Printing and publishing

The Yuan rulers liked books and helped make many of them. They used two ways to print: one with blocks made from wood and another with small pieces that could be moved around. They even printed special paper money called Jiaochao. Schools and governments got help to print books for everyone.

Ceramics

The Yuan dynasty was a busy time for making beautiful ceramics. A new style was created where blue and white designs were painted on pottery. This style became very popular and was sent to many places far away.

Society

See also: Society of the Mongol Empire, Yuan poetry, and Zaju

Imperial lifestyle

A special writing system was used for Mongolian, Tibetan, and Chinese languages in the royal court from 1269 until the dynasty ended. Most emperors could not read written Chinese, but they could usually speak it. The Mongols married within certain Mongol clans to keep their family pure, but they also took wives from many backgrounds. The emperors built large palaces but sometimes lived like nomads. One emperor, Tugh Temur, supported culture by writing poetry, painting, reading Chinese books, and ordering new books to be written.

Regular Mongol families lived quietly in the countryside. They earned money from farming but spent much of it preparing men for duty. The ruler Kublai made a rule in 1291 that Mongols could not be sold abroad. Kublai wanted to show he was becoming more like the Chinese while still keeping his Mongol identity. He created a civilian government, built a capital in China, supported Chinese religions and culture, and made new economic and political rules. Still, he never gave up his Mongol roots.^{: 488–489} 

Religion

See also: Islam during the Yuan dynasty and Religion in the Mongol Empire

Many religions were practiced during the Yuan dynasty, such as Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Manichaeism. The number of Muslims in China grew a lot after the Yuan dynasty began. Kublai Khan favored Buddhism, especially Tibetan Buddhism, which became the main religion. A special government office was created in Beijing to oversee Buddhist monks. Kublai and his successors kept a special Buddhist leader at court from the Sakya sect.

The Mongols brought in Muslims from Central Asia to work as administrators in China, and they sent Chinese and Khitan people to work in Central Asia. This helped control both areas.

Kublai Khan and later emperors made rules that restricted some Muslim and Jewish practices, such as certain ways of preparing food. These rules caused some tension.

Four-class system

Structure

The Mongols divided people into four groups based on when they surrendered to the Mongols and how much they were trusted:

1. Mongols. They were called the ruling citizens.
2. Semu, non-Mongol foreigners from the west and Central Asia.
3. Han, which included various peoples from Northern China and nearby areas.
4. Nan (Southerners), people from the former Southern Song dynasty. They had the least privileges.

People were placed in these groups based on their loyalty to the Mongols, not their ethnicity. Those who surrendered earlier were ranked higher.

Foreign administrators

The Mongols used people from different regions to manage parts of their empire. Central Asian Muslims worked in China, while Han people and Khitans worked in Central Asia. This helped control both areas.

Anti-Chinese policies

The government system was a mix of Mongol traditions and Chinese bureaucracy. However, Chinese elites were not given as much respect as before. The Mongols and Semu people had advantages, and this continued even after exams for government jobs were brought back. Very few Chinese reached the highest government positions compared to people from other groups.

Anti-Semu policies

Some rules made life hard for Muslims and others. These rules included restrictions on certain religious practices. Over time, this led to rebellions. Some Muslim leaders joined forces with others to fight against the Mongols.

Criticism

One historian noted that the four-class system did not always reflect actual wealth or power. Some Chinese were rich and respected, while some Mongols and Semu lived in poverty. Some Japanese historians question whether the Semu class even existed as a true group.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty

See also: Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia

The Yuan dynasty was divided into different areas to make it easier to manage. The most important area was called the Central Region. It included places like modern-day Hebei, Shandong, Shanxi, parts of Inner Mongolia, and Henan north of the Yellow River. This area was directly controlled by leaders in Khanbaliq, which is now Beijing.

Other areas were managed by groups called Branch Secretariats or provinces. There were eleven of these areas. Each had its own leaders who reported back to the main leaders in the Central Region. These areas were then split into smaller parts to help with local management. This way of organizing the land was used later by other Chinese dynasties, like the Ming dynasty.