Ancient Greek temple

Ancient Greek temples were special buildings made to hold statues of gods and goddesses. People built these temples as part of their religion, and they were very important in ancient Greece. The inside of the temples was not where people gathered; instead, rituals and sacrifices happened outside in open spaces around the temple. These temples were also used to keep gifts that people gave to the gods.

Over many years, these temples changed from small mud-brick buildings to huge stone structures with columns all around. They followed certain styles, like the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, which gave them different looks. Some of the most famous temples, like the one on the Acropolis of Athens, had beautiful carvings and statues. Cities or groups of people paid for these temples, but as time went on, building new big temples became rarer, especially after Greece became part of the Roman world.

These temples often stood inside larger sacred areas called sanctuaries, which might have walls, special trees, or even small springs. The temples were not just buildings; they were centers of spiritual life and sometimes offered safety to people who needed it.

Development

Origins

Early Greek places of worship likely didn’t have buildings at first. They often included a special area called a temenos, which might have a sacred tree, cave, or spring, and an altar for offerings. Over time, especially in cities, people began building structures to hold statues of gods. This started happening around the 9th century BC.

The early buildings called megaron from the Mycenaean period influenced later Greek temples. During a time known as the Greek Dark Age, these buildings became smaller. By around the 10th to 7th century BC, the basic design for Greek temples began to take shape. These early temples were simple rectangular buildings with small porches called antae. Some had curved back walls, but the rectangular shape became more common. Adding columns around these buildings led to the development of many different temple styles.

The Temple of Isthmia, built between 690–650 BC, was one of the first true early temples. Its size, columns, and roof made it different from buildings of that time.

Wooden architecture: Early Archaic

The first temples were made mostly from mud brick, marble, and wood, with stone bases. The columns and upper parts of the buildings were wooden, and wooden planks protected the doors and walls. These wooden structures helped create the main design ideas that shaped Greek temples for centuries.

Towards the end of the 7th century BC, these temples grew much larger. Temple C at Thermos was one of the first to be about 100 feet long. Because it was hard to build roofs over wide spaces, these temples stayed narrow, usually between 6 to 10 metres wide.

To show the importance of the statue of the god inside, temples were built with a roof supported by columns around the outside. This design, called a peristasis, became a special feature of Greek temples.

The idea of surrounding the temple with columns created new challenges for builders. The temples needed to look good from all sides. This led to the creation of buildings with porches at the front and back, called a pronaos and an opisthodomos.

Introduction of stone architecture: Archaic and Classical

After stone building returned, the design of temples kept changing. In the 6th century BC, the area of Ionian Samos created temples with double rows of columns, called dipteros. This idea spread to places like Didyma, Ephesos, and Athens. Between the 6th and late 4th century BC, many temples were built across Greek antiquity. Nearly every city and colony had one or more temples. There were also temples at important places like Olympia and Delphi.

These changes in design show how builders looked for balance and beauty in every part of the temple. They moved from simple, blocky shapes to more refined and mathematically precise designs.

Decline of Greek temple building: Hellenistic period

From the early Hellenistic period onward, large Greek temples became less common. Building new temples mostly stopped in Hellenistic Greece and the Greek areas of Magna Graecia. Only parts of Asia Minor kept building temples, but even there, it was on a small scale. Big projects like the temple of Apollo at Didyma near Miletus and the Artemision at Sardis didn’t make much progress.

In the 2nd century BC, temple building began to grow again, partly because of an architect named Hermogenes of Priene. He changed how Ionic temples were built. Rulers in the Hellenistic kingdoms also had lots of money and wanted to show off their power. This helped bring back more complex temple designs. During this time, Greek temples appeared in places like southern Asia Minor, Egypt, and Northern Africa.

Even with these big projects, most temples built during this time were small. These smaller temples were placed in markets, near springs, and by roads. They developed a new style using columns attached to the walls to look like bigger temples. An early example is temple L at Epidauros.

End of Greek temple construction: Roman Greece

In the early 1st century BC, wars called the Mithridatic Wars changed how buildings were made. Roman leaders in the eastern areas started to take over as sponsors, but they didn’t usually build temples. Still, some temples were built, like the Temple of Aphrodite at Aphrodisias.

When a new system of rule began, very few new buildings were made. Most new temples were for Roman gods or emperors. Even so, some temples for Greek gods were still built, like the Tychaion at Selge. Over time, Greek temple building ended, though work continued on big unfinished temples like the temple of Apollo at Didyma or the Olympieion at Athens into the later 2nd century AD.

Abandonment and conversion of temples: Late Antiquity

Rules made by leaders like Theodosius I stopped the worship of many old gods, leading to Greek temples being closed or turned into Christian churches.

This marked the end of Greek temples being used for their original purpose, though many stayed in use for a long time. For example, the Athenian Parthenon became a church and later a mosque after being taken over. It stayed mostly intact until the 17th century AD, when a cannon fired by Venetian forces caused major damage while the building was being used to store gunpowder.

Structure

Greek temples had a basic structure that stayed the same for many years. The Greeks used a few main parts to build these temples, which affected both the inside layout and the outside design.

Floor plan

Naos

The middle part of the temple is called the naos or cella. It usually held a special statue of a god. In older temples, there was sometimes a special room called the adyton after the naos for this purpose. In Sicily, this continued into later times.

Pronaos and opisthodomos

In front of the naos, there is a porch called the pronaos. This was made by the walls of the naos sticking out and two columns between them. A door let people go from the pronaos into the naos. At the back of the naos, there was a room called the opisthodomos. There was no door between the opisthodomos and the naos; it was mostly for looks, to keep the temple balanced and visible from all sides. Sometimes, a special space called the adyton could be at the far end of the naos, attached to the opisthodomos.

Peristasis

The naos, pronaos, opisthodomos, and sometimes the adyton were all surrounded on four sides by a row of columns called the peristasis. This made a colonnade called the pteron, which gave shelter to visitors and space for ceremonies.

• Elements of the floor plan

_Pronaos_

_Naos_ or _Cella_

_Adyton_ (exceptional)

_Opisthodomos_ (sometimes omitted)

_Opisthodomos_ + _Adyton_ + _Naos_ + _Pronaos_

Plan types

These parts allowed for many different designs in Greek temple building. The simplest temple was called a templum in antis, a small rectangle housing the statue. In front of the naos, a small porch or pronaos was formed by the walls of the naos. The pronaos connected to the naos by a door. Two columns between the walls supported the roof (distyle in antis). If it had an opisthodomos with a similar design, it was called a double anta temple. A version of this had the opisthodomos at the back of the naos shown by half-columns and short walls, called a pseudo-opisthodomos.

If the porch of a temple in antis had a row of four or six columns across, the temple was called a prostylos or prostyle temple. The whole pronaos might be missing in this case or just have walls without columns. An amphiprostylos or amphiprostyle repeated the same columns at the back.

A peripteros or peripteral temple was surrounded by colonnades on all four sides, usually one row of columns. This made an open walkway, the peristasis, around the temple. A later form was the pseudoperipteros, where side columns were shown by attached columns or pilasters on the naos walls.

A dipteros or dipteral had two rows of columns on all sides, sometimes with more columns at the front and back. A pseudodipteros had attached columns in the inner row on the sides.

Circular temples were a special type. If surrounded by columns, they were called peripteral tholoi. A similar shape was the monopteros, or cyclostyle, which lacked a naos.

To explain ground plan types, the main terms could be combined, making names like: peripteral double anta temple, prostyle in antis, peripteral amphiprostyle, etc.

Column number terminology

An extra way to describe temples, used by Vitruvius, was by the number of columns at the front. Modern learning uses these names:

The term dodekastylos was only used for the 12-column hall at the Didymaion. No temples this wide are known.

Very few temples had an odd number of columns at the front. Examples are the Temple of Hera I at Paestum, and the Temple of Apollo A at Metapontum, both with nine columns, and the older temple at Thermos with five columns.

Elevation

The height of Greek temples was always split into three parts: the crepidoma, the columns, and the entablature.

Foundations and crepidoma

The base of the temple had layers called the stereobate, euthynteria, and crepidoma. The underground base was the stereobate, made of stacked stone blocks. The top layer, the euthynteria, stuck up a little above ground. It held a three-step base called the crepidoma. The top step of the crepidoma was where the columns and walls stood; it was called stylobate.

Columns

On the stylobate stood the tall, thin columns. They were made of several stone pieces stacked together. Depending on the style, the column had a different number of lines cut into it: Doric columns had 18 to 20 lines, Ionic and Corinthian ones usually had 24. Early Ionic columns could have up to 48 lines. Doric columns sat directly on the stylobate, while Ionic and Corinthian ones had a base, sometimes on top of a plinth.

In Doric columns, the top had a curved neck called the hypotrachelion, and the capital. In Ionic columns, the capital sat right on the column. The Doric capital had a round bulge called the echinus, and a square piece called the abacus. Over time, the echinus grew bigger, ending in a diagonal line. The echinus of Ionic columns was decorated with a band and a pillow-shaped piece with scrolls called volutes, supporting a thin abacus. The Corinthian capital had rings of styled acanthus leaves forming scrolls that reached the corners of the abacus.

Entablature

The capitals held up the entablature. In the Doric style, the entablature had two parts: the architrave and the Doric frieze (or triglyph frieze). In Athens and the Cyclades, Ionic style also used a frieze above the architrave, but in Asia Minor, the frieze was not used until the 4th century BC. There, the architrave was followed by dentils. The frieze was once in front of the roof beams, visible only in older temples in Asia Minor. The Doric frieze had triglyphs placed above each column and above the middle of each space between columns called intercolumniation. The spaces between triglyphs had metopes, sometimes painted or carved with pictures. In Ionic or Corinthian styles, the frieze had no triglyphs and was left flat, sometimes painted or carved. With stone building, the roof support moved up to the level of the geison, so the frieze was only for decoration. Often, the naos was also decorated with architrave and frieze, especially at the front of the pronaos.

Cornice and geison

Above the frieze, or a middle part like the dentil in Ionic or Corinthian styles, the cornice stuck out. It had the geison (on the sloped sides or pediments of narrow walls) and the sima. On the long side, the sima, often fancy, had water spouts shaped like lions' heads. The triangle on the narrow sides of the temple, called the tympanon, was made by the roof shape. It was usually decorated with pictures of myths or battles. The roof corners and ridges had decorations called acroteria, starting as simple shapes and later becoming flowers or figures.

Aspect

When possible, temples stood alone and could be seen from all sides. They were not built to fit their surroundings, unlike Roman temples, which were often part of a planned area and meant to be viewed from the front.

Design and measurements

Greek temples were very large buildings. Their foundations could be as big as a football field, and columns could grow as tall as 20 meters. Architects used a special unit called the "foot," which was about 29 to 34 centimeters long, to measure and design these huge structures.

The number and spacing of columns followed specific rules. For example, the number of columns on the front and back was related to the number on the sides. This created balanced and beautiful designs. As time went on, architects also paid more attention to how far apart the columns stood from each other.

Optical refinements

Ancient Greek builders used clever tricks to make their temples look perfect. They knew that straight lines can look like they are sagging, so they bent the sides of the buildings just a little bit. This made the whole structure seem straight to the eye. The columns were also made special. Instead of being perfectly thin at the top and thick at the bottom, they were a bit thicker in the middle. This helped them look straight, too.

The famous Parthenon in Athens shows these tricks very well. Every part of the building, from the floor to the walls, was bent just a little. Even the columns leaned toward the center of the building. All of these small changes made the Parthenon look perfect and it was finished very quickly—in just sixteen years.

Decoration

Ancient Greek temples were often beautifully decorated with colors and sculptures. Artists used three main colors: white, blue, and red, sometimes adding black for details. The main parts of the temple, like the columns, were usually white, but smaller details might be painted in different colors. The frieze, a band around the temple, had blue and red patterns, and sculptures were painted in many colors.

These temples also had wonderful sculptures. The frieze areas often showed scenes carved in stone, and the triangular spaces above the entrance, called pediments, held larger statues. These sculptures told stories from myths, showing heroes, gods, and exciting battles. The roofs had special decorations called acroteria, which were small statues or ornaments placed at the corners and peaks of the roof. These could be statues of mythical creatures or gods. The columns of some temples also had carvings, adding to the rich decorations of these ancient buildings.

Function and design

Main article: Ancient_Greek_religion

The main purpose of a Greek temple was to house a statue of a god or goddess. This special statue, called a cult statue, sat inside a room called the naos. The outside of the temple was designed to show how important the statue inside was. The naos itself was often kept simple, but later some became more decorated with extra statues and gifts.

Most Greek temples faced east so that the main door would get sunlight, which was important for religious reasons. Some temples faced other directions because of local customs. The cult statue was usually made of stone, wood, or a special mix of gold and ivory. Famous examples include huge statues that, sadly, are now lost. The naos sometimes had special lighting, and some even had shallow pools of water or oil to keep the statue just right.

People could usually visit the naos to pray or show respect to the statue, though some temples had special rules about who could enter. In some places, only certain people were allowed in, but most Greeks could visit.

The back room of the temple, called the opisthodomos, was used to store things needed for worship or to keep treasures safe. The open area around the naos, called the peristasis, also held gifts and could be used for special walks or to stay out of the weather.

Sponsors, construction and costs

Greek temples were built thanks to support from two main groups: public groups that managed important holy places, and rich private donors such as kings. Money came from taxes, special payments, selling materials like silver, or donations, especially for big holy places like Delphi or Olympia. Sometimes kings would pay to rebuild temples in cities far from their own lands, using their own money.

Building a temple was organized carefully. After a group of people agreed to build, another group would pick the best plan. They would then watch over the building process, making sure everything was done right and paying workers fairly. Contracts were given to the builders who could do the most work for the least money. Often, the public group provided the building materials, and builders worked on small parts of the temple. Workers were paid by the day at first, but later they were paid for each piece they finished.

Building a temple could cost a lot. For example, one column for the Artemision in Ephesos cost 40,000 drachmas, which is about the same as two million euro today. With 120 columns needed, the cost was very high—similar to big building projects today.

Temples of the different architectural orders

Greek temples are grouped based on the style, or "order," they follow. There are three main orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each order has its own rules for design.

Doric temples

Doric temples are well-known, especially from places like Southern Italy and Sicily. Famous examples include the temples at Paestum, Akragas, and Segesta, as well as the Hephaisteion and the Parthenon in Athens. These temples influenced later Neoclassical architecture.

Beginnings

Doric temple building began in the early 7th century BC. By around 600 BC, stone replaced wood, and the style became more defined.

First monumental temples

Early Doric temples were simple, but soon grew larger. One early example is Temple C at Thermos, built around 625 BC. It was about 100 feet long and surrounded by columns.

Stone-built temples

The Heraion at Olympia (c. 600 BC)

The Heraion of Olympia shows the change from wood to stone. Over time, its wooden parts were replaced with stone. This temple helped solve design problems, like fitting the inner space within the outer columns.

Temple of Artemis, Kerkyra (early 6th century BC)

The Artemis Temple in Kerkyra (modern Corfu) is the oldest fully stone Doric temple. Its columns are short and close together, but it includes all key Doric features.

Archaic Olympieion, Athens

The Peisistratid Olympieion in Athens was planned as a large Doric temple but was never finished. Its design shows influences from Ionic styles.

Classical period: canonisation

Temple of Zeus, Olympia (460)

The Temple of Zeus at Olympia, built by Libon of Elis around 460 BC, set the standard for Doric temples. Its design was simple and logical, with clear measurements for columns and spaces.

Other canonical Classical temples

Many temples followed this 6 × 13 column pattern, such as the Temple of Apollo on Delos and the Temple of Hephaistos in Athens.

The Parthenon (450)

The Parthenon is a larger version of the same design, with 8 × 17 columns. It includes special features like inner columns and careful proportions. Its decorations include sculptures of myths and processions.

Late Classical and Hellenistic: changing proportions

Later Doric temples sometimes had more columns or different layouts. Some emphasized the front more than earlier temples.

Doric temples in Magna Graecia

In places like Sicily and Southern Italy, Doric temples developed in unique ways. Some had unusual column numbers or very wide spaces between columns.

Ionic temples

Origins

Early Ionic temples were simpler and often stressed the front with double porticos. They used more decorations and light-shade contrasts.

Monumental Ionic temples

The Heraion of Samos

The temple at the Heraion of Samos, built around 560 BC, was huge, with double rows of columns. Its columns were tall and had detailed decorations.

The Artemision of Ephesos

The Artemision in Ephesos, built around 550 BC, was one of the largest temples and one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. It had tall columns with decorations and was made entirely of marble.

Temple of Apollo at Didyma

The temple of Apollo at Didyma near Miletus was another large Ionic temple with an open inner space. Building took many years.

Temple of Athena Polias, Priene

The temple of Athena Polias at Priene, built between 350 and 330 BC, is a classic example of Ionic design. It had a simple grid layout and balanced columns and walls.

The Artemision of Magnesia

The Artemision of Magnesia on the Maeander was an early example of a temple with a broad portico. It included detailed friezes with figures.

Attic Ionic

Although Athens was Ionian, Ionic temples were rare there. The Temple of Nike Aptera and parts of the Erechtheion show Ionic features.

Epidauros

The temple of Asklepios in Epidaurus was an early example of a temple with engaged columns along the sides.

Magna Graecia

Ionic temples in Magna Graecia are rare but show creativity in mixing styles.

Hellenistic India

A temple in Jandial, Pakistan, shows Greek influence with its layout and columns.

Corinthian temples

Beginnings

The Corinthian order became popular later, mostly in the last half of the 3rd century BC. Early examples include temples in Alexandria and Hermopolis Magna.

Examples

Hellenistic Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens

The Olympieion of Athens, rebuilt between 175 and 146 BC, is a large Corinthian temple. It combined Ionic and Corinthian styles.

Olba

A Corinthian temple in Olba had unique features like columns without plinths and a mix of Doric and Corinthian elements.

Temple of Hekate at Lagina

The temple of Hekate at Lagina, built around 100 BC, is known for its detailed frieze and Ionic-style elements.

Distinctive uses of Corinthian temples, influence

Corinthian temples were often built for royalty or to show wealth. Later, they became common in Roman architecture and spread widely.

Surviving remains

Main article: List of Ancient Greek temples

Many Greek temples were built very strongly, but only a few have survived in good condition. Often, these are temples that were later turned into churches or mosques. In some places, we can still see the bases of the temples and parts of their columns.

The best-preserved temples are mainly found in Athens and southern Italy. Athens has the famous Parthenon and the well-preserved Temple of Hephaestus, both of which were used as churches long ago. In Italy, Paestum has three early temples lined up together. In Sicily, near Agrigento, there is a large group of temples, with the Temple of Concordia being especially well kept. At Selinunte, the ruins of five temples can be seen, and one has been put back together using the original stones.