Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh is a state in northeast India. It became a state on February 20, 1987, and its capital is Itanagar. Before 1972, the area was called the North-East Frontier Agency.

Arunachal Pradesh shares borders with Bhutan, Myanmar, and China. China claims part of the state as Southern Tibet, but it is part of India. In 1962, China occupied some areas but later left.

The state has a population of about 1.4 million people, but it is very spread out, with only 17 people living in each square kilometre. Many different groups of people live there, including Monpa, Tani, Mishmi, Tai, and Naga people. There are about 23 main tribes and over 100 smaller groups.

Etymology

Arunachal Pradesh means Land of the Dawn-Lit Mountains in Sanskrit. This name was created when the state was formed. Before 1972, the area was called the North-East Frontier Agency.

Some countries, like the People's Republic of China, do not recognize Arunachal Pradesh as part of India. They believe it should belong to a place they call Southern Tibet. In old Tibetan writings, some parts of Arunachal Pradesh had different names.

History

Ancient period

Main articles: Monpa people and Prince Tsangma

Very little is known about the ancient history of this area, except for the northwestern parts and areas near today's Assam. The northwestern areas were controlled by the Monpa kingdom of Monyul under Tibet, which grew between 500 BCE and 600 CE. The Monpa and Sherdukpen kept records of local leaders in the northwest.

According to Tibetan stories, Monyul was ruled by Gongkar Gyal, a descendant of an exiled Tibetan ruler named Lhase Tsangma, the brother of the Tibetan king Ralpacan. He came to Monyul in 837 A.D. or earlier.

A descendant of Gongkar Gyal became the ruler of the Trashiyangtse region of Bhutan. Another descendant, Gapde Tsan, ruled the Khorwong valley in Thembanga town (now in West Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh).

Later, Gongkar Gyal's second son, Wongme Palde, returned to Tibet because of poverty in Khorwong valley but then came back to rule Monyul.

The Rgyal rigs text from 1668 or 1728 lists taxes collected, including coins, food, or animals from areas around today's Kameng district and Tawang district.

The Monpas, also called Menba by the Chinese, were in charge of trade between Assam and Tibet. They managed the Koriapar Dooar at Sonitpur district in Assam. The Monpa leaders were under the ruler of Tawang, who was in turn under the Government of Tibet in Lhasa. Tibetan leaders sent officials called Gellongs to watch over the Monpa leaders. The Monpa leader in charge of the Duar was called Tsorgon, a job started in the 16th century.

Thembang dzong built during the 12th century, a type of dzong commonly found in Bhutan and Tibet

According to Tibetan history, the area now called Arunachal Pradesh, known as Lhoyu, was taken over by the Tubo Kingdom or Tibetan Empire in the 7th century CE.

Medieval period

Main articles: Tsangyang Gyatso and Tawang Monastery

In the 1600s, the 5th Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (1617–1682) put a tax called Khrey on Monyul and ordered the building of fortresses in the Monpa area called Dzong. These served as centers for local control and tax collecting.

The fortresses built were Dirang Dzong, Taklung Dzong, and Gyangkhar Dzong to collect taxes from the Dirang Monpa, Kalaktang Monpa, and Tawang Monpa. The tax collectors were called Dzongpon.

The tax was taken to Tawang Monastery and then to Lhasa through Tsona city (now in China).

The 6th Dalai Lama Tsangyang Gyatso (1683–1706) was born in Tawang. He died in Amdo (now China) on his way to Beijing after being taken by Mongol forces under Lha-bzang Khan, the last ruler of the Khoshut Khanate, with approval from the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty.

Before he died, the 6th Dalai Lama asked for important buildings to be built, like Tromzikhang in Barkhor, Lhasa.

Arunachal Pradesh is part of the Kham and Ü-Tsang cultural areas of Tibet, which also includes the Brahmaputra River area.

Arunachal Pradesh under the Tibetan Empire in 7th and 8th century CE

The lower areas and plains were under the control of the Chutia kings of Assam. The inner parts stayed independent, even though they sometimes interacted with outside groups.

British India

After the British took over Assam following the First Anglo-Burmese War, they took over the old system used by the Ahom Kingdom for dealing with nearby tribes, called posa. The British made agreements with leading chiefs to decide who could ask for goods from the British, to prevent attacks. The British wanted to grow the economy and get tea, coal, oil, and minerals from Assam, so they worked to stop fights among tribes, heads, and slavery. Before the Simla Conference, the British had not said what they planned to do with the frontier areas and tribes. The area was seen as terra nullius, meaning it didn't belong to the British or anyone else. The British didn't say if the frontier areas were part of Tibet or China. They thought the tribal lands were under British influence until they learned more about Tibet's borders. In the 1800s, there was a lot of confusion about the border, and they weren't in a hurry to draw it.

The first plan for the frontier areas was the Inner Line system. This was meant to keep people out of certain areas to avoid fights with tribes on the border. But the Inner Line wasn't really an international border; it was more about controlling who could move in and out. Before 1880, British officials dealt with tribes as they came up. In 1880, a Frontier Tract Regulation was made and applied to any area with tribes that were not fully civilized, next to or inside districts under the Chief Commissioner of Assam. With this, the Dibrugah Frontier Tract (east of the Subansiri River) was officially put under Lakhimpur, with a political officer at Sadiya. The western part was managed by the Deputy Commissioner of Darrang.

In 1912, Chinese military actions nearby made the British negotiate a formal border. This was because of the Qing Empire trying to control the Kham area of Tibet in 1910. The British heard reports that Chinese forces might be coming close to the Inner Line border in the west. Chinese officials in Rima had called Mishmi leaders to ask them to join. Other stories said a Chinese force might march down the Siang river into Abor lands. To answer these worries, the British sent three groups into the hills. The Miri Mission went west of the Subansiri River. The Abor Mission went between Subansiri and Siang, along with the Mishmi Mission in the Sisseri, Dibang, and Lohit river valleys. These missions aimed to find the "natural and traditional border" between the frontier tribes and Tibet, and to tell the tribes they were under British rule and must follow British laws.

These missions helped the boundary commission draw the McMahon Line, affected by what they found. One big exception was including Tawang in the far west. The people there had strong cultural and religious ties to Tibet and Bhutan, and the British had called this a "dependancy of Thibet," not part of the tribal areas. But as they learned more about the Buddhist communities in Lhasa and the Sub-Himalayan areas, they questioned if Tawang was really a Tibetan dependency. They thought it might be more like Bhutan and Sikkim, which had ties to Tibet's religious leaders but were separate. Another area between the tribes and Bhutan was thought to be unwanted, so in 1914, the British checked it out. The report by the Balipara Political Officer said the Tawang Monastery was started from Drepung Monastery near Lhasa but suggested including it in British control anyway. So, with these ideas, the McMahon Line was drawn.

In 1912–13, the British Indian government set up the North-East Frontier Tracts through three parts: the Western section, the Central and Eastern section, and the Lakhimpur tract. By 1919, these became the Ballipara Frontier Tract, Lakhimpur Frontier Tract, and Sadiya Frontier Tract.

The McMahon line

Main article: McMahon Line

Tawang Monastery built in the 17th century under the instruction of the 5th Dalai Lama, is the largest monastery in India and second-largest in the world after the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet. It is one of the few monasteries of Tibetan Buddhism that have remained protected from Mao's Cultural Revolution without any damage.

In 1913–1914, leaders from Tibet (which was not officially part of China at the time) and Britain met in India to decide the borders of 'Outer Tibet' regarding China. British leader Sir Henry McMahon drew the 550 miles (890 km) McMahon Line as the border between British India and Tibet, putting Tawang and other areas inside British India. The Tibetan and British leaders made the Simla Accord including the McMahon Line, but Chinese leaders did not agree. The Simla Accord said China had to agree to get other benefits.

China said Tibet was not separate from China and could not make treaties, so the Accord was not valid, like the Anglo-Chinese (1906) and Anglo-Russian (1907) agreements. British records show that Tibet would only accept the new border if China agreed to the Simla Convention. Since Britain could not get China to agree, Tibetans thought the McMahon Line was not valid.

When China did not control Tibet, the line was not challenged. In 1935, a Deputy Secretary in the Foreign Department, Olaf Caroe, found that the McMahon Line was not on official maps. The Survey of India released a map in 1937 showing the McMahon Line as India's official border. In 1938, twenty years after the Simla Conference, the British finally published the Simla Accord as a bilateral agreement and the Survey of India made a detailed map showing the McMahon Line as India's border.

In April 1938, a small British group led by Captain G. S. Lightfoot went to Tawang and told the monastery it was now Indian land. The Tibetan government in Lhasa protested, and its control was restored after Lightfoot left.

In 1944, Britain set up local governments from Dirang Dzong in the west to Walong in the east. Control was extended over the Tawang area south of the Sela Pass when J.P. Mills put an Assam Rifles post at Dirang Dzong and removed Tibetan tax collectors. Tibetan protests were ignored. But no action was taken to remove Tibet from the area north of the pass, which included Tawang town. The Tawang district stayed under Tibetan control until 1951.

Sino-Indian War

Main article: Sino-Indian War

After British rule ended, India became independent in 1947, and the People's Republic of China (PRC) started in 1949. The new Chinese government still said the McMahon Line was not real.

In October 1947, independent Tibet sent a note to India asking for back the lands the British had taken from Tibet. These included Zayul and Walong, and areas near Pemakoe, Lonag, Lopa, Mon, Bhutan, Sikkim, Darjeeling. After talking with India, Tibet gave up claims on these lands.

Dirang Dzong build under instruction of the 5th Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso

In November 1950, the PRC was about to take over Tibet by force, and India supported Tibet. Writer Sudha Ramachandran said China claimed Tawang for Tibetans, though Tibetans did not claim Tawang as part of Tibet.

In February 1951, India sent Ralengnao Khathing of Manipur with a small group and some carriers to Tawang and took control of the rest of the Tawang area from the Tibetans, ending Tibetan control.

What is now Arunachal Pradesh became the North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) in 1954. Sino-Indian relations were friendly until 1960. The border disagreement was a reason for the Sino-Indian War in 1962, when China took most of Arunachal Pradesh, including the Tawang area. China said it won, pulled back to the McMahon Line, and sent back Indian prisoners of war in 1963.

The war ended trade with Tibet, but since 2007, India has wanted to start it again.

Renaming and statehood

Under Indira Gandhi, the North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) was renamed Arunachal Pradesh by Bibhabasu Das Shastri, Daya Krishna Goswami and O. P. Upadhya on 20 January 1972, and it became a union territory. Later, Arunachal Pradesh became a state on 20 February 1987 under Rajiv Gandhi's government.

Recent claims

The 14th Dalai Lama did not at first recognize India's control over Arunachal Pradesh. As late as 2003, he said "Arunachal Pradesh was actually part of Tibet". In January 2007, the Dalai Lama said that both Britain and Tibet had recognized the McMahon Line in 1914. In 2008, he said Arunachal Pradesh was part of India under the agreement made by Tibetan and British leaders. He said that in 1962, during the India-China war, the People's Liberation Army took all of Arunachal Pradesh but announced a ceasefire and pulled back, accepting the current border.

In recent years, China has sometimes said it claims Tawang. India has said these claims are wrong and that Tawang is part of India. India repeated this to China when their leaders met in Thailand in October 2009. A report in 2016 said the Chinese Army had briefly entered Arunachal Pradesh, but India's Minister of State for Home Affairs, Kiren Rijiju, said this was not true. In April 2017, China objected strongly when the Dalai Lama visited Tawang, as it had before when the US ambassador went there.

In 2024, The New York Times reported that satellite pictures showed China had built villages in areas of Arunachal Pradesh that are in dispute. Chinese people, called "border guardians", got money each year to move to these new villages and to watch the border.

Site	Dated to	Built by
Bhismaknagar Fort, Roing	8th–15th century	Chutia kings
Bolung Fort, Bolung	13th century	Chutia kings
Dimachung-Betali, West Kameng	13th century	Chutia kings
Gomsi Fort, East Siang	13th century	Chutia kings
Rukmini Fort, Roing	14th–15th century	Chutia kings
Tezu Fort, Roing	14th–15th century	Chutia kings
Naksha Parbat ruins, East Kameng	14th–15th century	Chutia kings
Ita Fort, Itanagar	14th–15th century	Chutia kings
Buroi Fort, Papum Pare	13th century	Chutia kings
Malinithan Temple, Likabali	13th–14th century	Chutia kings
Ita Pukhuri, Ithili	13th–14th century	Chutia kings
Padum Pukhuri, Ithili	13th–14th century	Chutia kings
Kampona brick tank, Idili	13th–14th century	Chutia kings
Kanying brick tank, Idili	13th–14th century	Chutia kings
Bolung brick canal, Bolung	13th–14th century	Chutia kings
Dirang Dzong, West Kameng	17th century	Monpa
Tawang Monastery, Tawang	17th century (1680–1681)	Merak Lama Lodre Gyatso

Geography

Main article: Geography of Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh is a state in northeast India, located between latitudes 26.28° N and 29.30° N and longitudes 91.20° E and 97.30° E. It covers an area of 83,743 km². The highest peak is Kangto, standing at 7,060 metres. The state’s name comes from the Aruna Mountains, known as “the place where the sun rises.” The villages of Dong and Vijaynagar are among the first in India to see sunlight.

The state has many rivers, including the Kameng, Subansiri, Siang (Brahmaputra), Dibang, Lohit, and Noa Dihing. These rivers are fed by underground water and summer snow melt. The mountains here are part of the Eastern Himalayas and other ranges like the Mishmi Hills and Patkai Range.

Arunachal Pradesh has a wide range of climates depending on height above sea level. Lower areas have a warm, moist climate, while higher areas have cooler mountain climates. The state receives heavy rain each year, mostly falling between May and October.

The state is rich in wildlife, with many types of birds and mammals. Its forests are important for biodiversity and include several national parks. The area is home to many different plants, including special trees and shrubs adapted to cold mountain climates. Animals such as tiger, snow leopard, and Asian elephant live here, along with unique species like the Mishmi Hills hoolock gibbon.

Administration

Districts

Main article: Districts of Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh is divided into three main areas called Central, East, and West. Each area has a leader called a divisional commissioner. The state also has twenty-eight districts, each led by a deputy commissioner. West Siang is the largest district by size, while Tawang is the smallest. Papum Pare has the most people, and Diwang Valley has the fewest.

Major towns

Here are some of the bigger towns in Arunachal Pradesh.

Municipal corporation

Itanagar Municipal Corporation

Municipal councils

Pasighat Municipal council

Municipal committees

Towns

Division	West	Central	East
Headquarters	Yazali	Basar	Namsai
Districts	East Kameng Kamle Kra Daadi Kurung Kumey Lower Subansiri Pakke-Kessang Papum Pare Tawang West Kameng	Lepa-Rada Lower Siang Shi-Yomi Upper Subansiri West Siang	Anjaw Changlang Dibang Valley East Siang Lohit Longding Lower Dibang Valley Namsai Siang Tirap Upper Siang

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh is home to many different groups of people. According to the 2011 Census, about 68.79% of the people belong to 12 groups known as Scheduled Tribes. The state has several cultural areas based on the tribes' identity, language, religion, and traditions. These areas include the Monpa area near Bhutan, the Tani area in the center, the Mishmi area to the east, the Tai/Singpho/Tangsa area near Myanmar, and the Naga area to the south. There are also smaller groups and transition zones between these main areas.

Religion

Main articles: Religion in Arunachal Pradesh and Hinduism in Arunachal Pradesh

People in Arunachal Pradesh follow many different religions. In 2011, the main religions were Christianity (30.3%), Hinduism (29.0%), Donyi-Polo (26.2%), Buddhism (11.8%), and Islam (1.95%). The state has a rich mix of religious beliefs, with many people following their traditional tribal religions, such as Donyi-Polo. Buddhism has been present since the 8th century, especially in areas near Tibet. Christianity has grown significantly over the years, from less than 1% in 1971 to over 30% in 2011.

Languages

Literacy

Literacy in Arunachal Pradesh improved from 54.74% in 2001 to 66.95% in 2011. In 2011, about 789,943 people could read and write. More men (73.69%) were literate compared to women (59.57%).

Historical population
Year	Pop.	±%
1961	336,558	—
1971	467,511	+38.9%
1981	631,839	+35.1%
1991	864,558	+36.8%
2001	1,097,968	+27.0%
2011	1,383,727	+26.0%
Source: Census of India

Economy

Year	Gross Domestic Product (Billion ₹)
1980	1.070
1985	2.690
1990	5.080
1995	11.840
2000	17.830
2005	31.880
2010	65.210
2015	155.880

Transport

Air

Itanagar Airport was built at Holongi and opened in 2022. The airline IndiGo started flying directly from Mumbai and Kolkata to Itanagar. Alliance Air also flies to Pasighat from Kolkata, stopping in Guwahati. Small airports in Daporijo, Ziro, Along, and Tezu are not open yet, but there are plans to develop them. Before roads connected the state, these air strips helped bring food to people.

Roads

The main highway in Arunachal Pradesh is the Trans-Arunachal Highway, which runs from Tawang to Wakro and passes through most of the state. It was announced in 2008 to be finished by 2015–16 but opened in 2018. The Bogibeel Bridge over the Brahmaputra River in Assam helps connect central Arunachal Pradesh. Bus services run from Itanagar to many towns and cities nearby. By 2007, all villages had road access thanks to government funding.

Railway

Arunachal Pradesh’s first railway line opened in late 2013, connecting Harmuti in Assam to Naharlagun. Itanagar, the state capital, got its train service in April 2014. The first train all the way from New Delhi reached Naharlagun in February 2015. India plans to keep building railways until they reach Tawang, close to the border with China.

Education

Main article: Education in Arunachal Pradesh

The government of Arunachal Pradesh is working hard to improve schools and colleges with help from groups like Vivekananda Kendra. This has helped many more people learn to read and write. The biggest university is Rajiv Gandhi University, which used to be called Arunachal University. It has many schools where students can study subjects like teaching, health, and nursing. Other universities include Indira Gandhi Technological and Medical Sciences University and Himalayan University.

The first college, Jawaharlal Nehru College in Pasighat, opened in 1964. A special technical university called North East Frontier Technical University (NEFTU) started in 2014 in Aalo. There are also important schools like the North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology and the National Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh in Yupia.

Some of the best colleges have been checked and approved by a group called NAAC. These include Jawaharlal Nehru College in Pasighat, St Claret College in Ziro, and others.

There are special schools run by Buddhist groups that teach old scripts along with regular school subjects. The state also has polytechnic schools and law colleges, along with a college for studying plants and forests.

Politics

State symbols

Emblem	Emblem of Arunachal Pradesh
Animal	Mithun (Bos frontalis)
Bird	Hornbill (Buceros bicornis)
Flower	Foxtail orchid (Rhynchostylis retusa)
Tree	Hollong (Dipterocarpus retusus)

Geographical indication

Arunachal Pradesh Khaw Tai (Khamti Rice) received a special label called Geographical Indication (GI) on October 3, 2023. This label means that this rice can only come from Arunachal Pradesh and helps protect it from being sold falsely elsewhere.

The rice was proposed for this label by a company in Lohit. After applying in December 2021, it was officially granted the GI tag in 2023 in Chennai, making it the first rice variety from Arunachal Pradesh to have this special recognition.