Augustus

Augustus, born Gaius Octavius, was the first emperor of the Roman Empire, ruling from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He began his life as the nephew of Julius Caesar, who named him as his main heir. After Caesar's death, Augustus fought to gain control and became one of the most powerful leaders in Roman history.

He helped create a time of peace called the Pax Romana, during which the Roman world saw less war and conflict. Augustus changed the way Rome was governed, mixing elements of old republican rule with new imperial power. Though he held great authority, he tried to appear as just another citizen, earning titles like "first citizen" and "father of the country."

Augustus expanded the Roman Empire, adding new lands such as Egypt and parts of Europe. He also brought order to Rome by building roads, creating a professional army, and starting services to keep the city safe. Many artists and writers, like Virgil, were inspired by him, and he remains an important figure in history.

Name

Augustus was known by many names throughout his life. He was born as Gaius Octavius. After Julius Caesar named him his heir, he became Gaius Julius Caesar. Later, he was given the title Imperator Caesar. Finally, in 27 BC, the Senate granted him the honorific Augustus, and historians use this name to refer to him from that time until his death in AD 14.

Early life

Main article: Early life of Augustus

Further information: Julio-Claudian family tree

Octavian, born Gaius Octavius, grew up in Rome on the Palatine Hill. His father, Gaius Octavius, came from a well-off family and served in important jobs, including leading Macedonia. His mother, Atia, was related to Julius Caesar.

After his father passed away, Octavius's mother married another important man, Lucius Marcius Philippus. Octavius gave a speech at his grandmother’s funeral when he was young. He learned from teachers and studied under famous philosophers.

When Julius Caesar and Pompey fought a long war, Octavius became part of Caesar’s group. Caesar made him an important priest and allowed him to join in celebrations of his victories. Caesar also chose Octavius as his main heir in his will.

Rise to power

Main article: Rise of Augustus

Further information: Crisis of the Roman Republic

Heir to Caesar

Further information: Rise of Augustus and Assassination of Julius Caesar

In 44 BC, Octavius was in Apollonia, Illyria, when Julius Caesar became Rome's first ruler for life and was later killed on March 15. Octavius met with Caesar's officers before traveling to Italy to learn his political future. Caesar had no living children under Roman law. His will named Octavius as his main heir, requiring him to take Caesar's name. After arriving near Brundisium in southern Italy, Octavius learned this will, which left him three-quarters of Caesar's estate. Against his stepfather's advice, Octavius accepted the will on May 8, 44 BC. He claimed that Caesar adopted him as his son and took the name Gaius Julius Caesar. His stepfather, Cicero, and others called him Octavianus.

Octavian could not rely on his limited funds to enter politics successfully. After being welcomed by Caesar's soldiers at Brundisium, he demanded a portion of the funds Caesar set aside for his war against the Parthians. This was 700 million sesterces stored at Brundisium, the staging point in Italy for military operations in the east. Octavian also took the annual tribute from Rome's province of Asia without permission. He began recruiting Caesar's veterans and men meant for the Parthian war. On his march to Rome through Italy, Octavian's presence and new wealth won over many, including Caesar's veterans in Campania. By June, he had gathered an army of 3,000 men, paying each a bonus of 500 denarii, more than twice a soldier's annual pay.

Growing tensions

Further information: Rise of Augustus and Philippicae

Arriving in Rome on May 6, 44 BC, Octavian found consul Mark Antony, Caesar's former colleague, in an uneasy peace with Caesar's killers. A general amnesty on March 17 pardoned the killers in exchange for recognizing Caesar's legal acts. Soon after, Antony drove most of them out of Rome with an angry speech at Caesar's funeral, turning public opinion against the killers.

Mark Antony gained political support but lost the backing of many Romans and Caesar's followers when he opposed the idea of making Caesar a god. Octavian challenged him as the leader of Caesar's supporters. To stop Octavian from giving money to the people of Rome as Caesar's will said, Antony refused to give Octavian the money he was owed as Caesar's heir. He also blocked the group of leaders from hearing Octavian's attempts to make his adoption by Caesar official, to have Caesar made a god, and to bring back Caesar's golden throne for public games in April and June. During Caesar's victory games, Octavian used some of the money from Caesar's will and his own money, increasing his popularity and hurting Antony's.

During the summer of 44 BC, Octavian gained the support of more veterans and senators who saw Antony as a threat to the state. Antony had his helpers take Octavian from a hearing about returning private property taken by Caesar in 49 BC. Octavian then claimed Antony threatened his life for giving money to the people of Rome as Caesar's will said. Caesar's veterans made Antony publicly reconcile with Octavian at the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. After that, Antony's aggressive orders against the killers Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus made him lose the support of moderate senators who feared a new civil war. In September, Marcus Tullius Cicero, now an ally of Octavian, began giving a series of speeches calling Antony a threat to the Republic.

First conflict with Antony

Main article: War of Mutina

With opinion in Rome turning against him and his time as consul ending, Antony passed a law illegally giving himself the province of Cisalpine Gaul in northern Italy. Octavian built up a private army in Italy by recruiting Caesar's veterans, and in early November entered Rome with this army to challenge Antony. However, they left the city shortly after when some veterans decided to quit because they realized they were involved in a fight among Caesar's supporters rather than a campaign for revenge against Caesar's killers. Still, on November 28, Octavian won over two of Antony's armies with the promise of money. Antony then left Rome for Cisalpine Gaul, which was to be handed to him on January 1, 43 BC. However, the province had already been given to the killer Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, who refused to give it up to Antony. Antony besieged him at Mutina. This gave Octavian, whose private army was nearby, a chance to act.

Cicero defended Octavian against Antony's insults and had him made a senator on January 1, 43 BC. Octavian was given the right to vote with former consuls, the privilege to run for office at an earlier age than usual, and power as a commander. Octavian joined the consuls to help end the siege of Mutina. He took control on January 7, a date he later celebrated as the start of his public career. Antony withdrew to Transalpine Gaul after his forces lost at the battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina in April. Both consuls were killed, however, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies. These victories earned him his first title as a winning commander.

Mostly ignoring Octavian, the Senate gave many rewards to Decimus Brutus and tried to give him command of the armies of the consuls. In response, Octavian stayed in the Po Valley and refused to go after Antony. In July, leaders sent by Octavian entered Rome; they asked for Octavian to be made consul with Cicero as co-consul and for the Senate to take back a decision calling Antony an enemy of the state. When this was refused, Octavian marched on Rome, where he met no military resistance. On August 19, 43 BC, at age 19, he became consul with his relative Quintus Pedius. Pedius made laws creating a special group to try Caesar's killers and their helpers; Octavian led the trial and had them found guilty and sent away. Octavian also had the group of leaders make him part of Caesar's family, making his claim to have been adopted by Caesar legal. Meanwhile, Antony made an alliance with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, the governor of Gallia Narbonensis. The Senate called Lepidus, a fellow supporter of Caesar, an enemy of the state for joining Antony, but they took back this decision at Pedius's request while Octavian marched north to fight Decimus Brutus and meet with Antony.

Second Triumvirate

Main article: Second Triumvirate

Further information: First Triumvirate

In a meeting near Bononia in October 43 BC, Octavian joined with Antony and Lepidus to form the triumvirate for the stability of the Roman Republic, and on November 27 the lex Titia made their agreement official for five years. The triumvirate gave the men consular power, the right to appoint leaders, and allowed them to divide the provinces not controlled by the liberatores in the east among themselves. Octavian had been engaged to Servilia, daughter of Servilius Isauricus, but instead became engaged to Claudia, Antony's stepdaughter, to strengthen their political union. Octavian also gave up the consulship to Antony's ally Publius Ventidius.

Proscriptions

Main article: Proscription of the Second Triumvirate

The triumvirs started proscriptions, listing about 300 men as outlaws, about evenly split between senators and other important people. Thousands more lost their property. Ancient Roman historians give different reports about which triumvir was most responsible for the proscriptions and killings. However, the sources agree that the proscriptions let all three get rid of political enemies.

The triumvirs began the proscriptions partly to raise money to pay their soldiers for the coming conflict against Caesar's killers Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius, but the main reason was to remove wartime rivals. The triumvirs took the property of those on the lists. However much money they collected was not enough, so the triumvirs added new taxes to fund their war. They brought back taxes on property and created new taxes on slaves, and then asked for property assessments for taxes on wealthy women that were reduced after women in Rome protested.

Battle of Philippi and division of territory

Main articles: Liberators' civil war and Battle of Philippi

On January 1, 42 BC, with Lepidus as consul, the Senate officially recognized Julius Caesar as a god of the Roman state, divus Iulius. Octavian could further his cause by emphasizing that he was divi filius ('son of the divine'). Antony and Octavian then led twenty-eight armies east against Brutus and Cassius, whom they defeated after two battles at Philippi in Macedonia in October 42 BC. Brutus and Cassius both died. Claiming responsibility for both victories, Antony called Octavian a coward for letting Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa take direct control of his army. Octavian was bedridden with illness during the first battle, allegedly leaving the camp on his doctor's advice, but took Brutus's camp during the second battle.

After Philippi, the triumvirs divided the provinces again. Lepidus was suspected of working with Sextus Pompey, the rebel general the anti-Caesarian Senate had given control of all Mediterranean coastlines in 43 BC. Cisalpine Gaul was combined with Italia and given to Octavian along with the provinces of Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior that Lepidus had to give up. Antony traveled east to Egypt where he made an alliance with Cleopatra, a Roman ruler, former lover of Julius Caesar, and mother of Caesar's son Caesarion. In addition to the eastern provinces, Antony controlled Gallia Comata and took Gallia Narbonensis from Lepidus, who was left with the province of Africa.

Octavian had to settle tens of thousands of soldiers who finished their service in Italy. Those who fought for the killers also needed to be settled to make them stop fighting. With no public land left, Octavian chose to take land from citizens, instead of making the soldiers angry enough to threaten the government in Italy. The settlements affected some eighteen cities, with whole populations fully or partly forced out.

Perusine War, marriage alliances, and Brundisium

Main articles: Perusine War and Treaty of Brundisium

These settlements of soldiers caused wide dissatisfaction for Octavian. The unhappy people joined Mark Antony's brother Lucius Antonius, who had the support of most of the Senate. Meanwhile, Octavian asked to end his marriage with Claudia, Antony's stepdaughter. He sent Claudia back to her mother, Fulvia, saying that their marriage had never been completed. Fulvia and Lucius Antonius then raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. Lucius even took Rome for a short time, forcing Lepidus and his two armies to leave the city. However, the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their pay. Lucius and his allies ended up surrounded in Perusia, where Octavian forced them to give up in February 40 BC. Octavian spared Lucius, while Fulvia fled to Sicyon in Greece and died shortly after. On March 15, the anniversary of Julius Caesar's assassination, Octavian had 300 Roman senators and important people killed for joining with Lucius. Perusia was also damaged, though it is unclear who started the fires. These actions hurt Octavian's reputation.

Sextus Pompey kept control of Sicily as part of an agreement with the triumvirate in 40 BC, and gained control of Sardinia and Corsica in 39. Both Antony and Octavian wanted an alliance with him. Octavian made a temporary alliance in 40 BC when he married Scribonia, an aunt of Sextus's wife. A year later, Scribonia gave birth to Octavian's only surviving child, Julia, on the same day that he ended their marriage to wed Livia Drusilla. When Livia started her relationship with Octavian, she was already married to Tiberius Claudius Nero, had a son Tiberius with Nero, and was pregnant with their second child. She gave birth to her second son, Drusus, several months after ending her marriage to Nero and marrying Octavian. Livia later had another child with Octavian who was born early and did not survive.

While in Egypt, Antony had a relationship with Cleopatra and had two children with her. Antony's areas in Gaul passed to Octavian after the death of Antony's helper Quintus Calenus in 40 BC. Knowing his relationship with Octavian was getting worse, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed to Italy in 40 BC with a large army to fight Octavian, laying siege to Brundisium, but their armies refused to fight and made the two men make peace. In late 40, the triumvirs divided the empire between Antony in the east, Octavian in the west, and Lepidus in Africa. Now in a stronger position because of the threat from Parthia in Antony's areas, Octavian married his sister, Octavia Minor, to Antony.

War with Sextus Pompey and exile of Lepidus

Main article: Bellum Siculum

Further information: Pact of Misenum and Octavian's military campaigns in Illyricum

Before the battles of Philippi, Octavian had sent Salvidienus Rufus to remove Sextus Pompey from Sicily, but after Rufus's loss, the triumvirs recognized Sextus's control of the Mediterranean at Brundisium in 40 BC. When Sextus started his blockade again, a hungry, angry crowd in Rome blamed Octavian and Antony and attacked them in early 39 BC; Antony's forces defended Octavian and broke up the crowd. Another temporary peace agreement was made in 39 BC at Misenum. Sextus ended the blockade of Italy once Octavian gave him Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and the Peloponnese and promised him a future position as consul.

The agreement between the triumvirate and Sextus began to fall apart when Octavian ended his marriage with Scribonia and wed Livia in 38 BC. After Antony refused to give up the Peloponnese, Sextus started his blockade again, causing food shortages in Rome. Sextus's naval leader Menas switched sides, giving up Corsica and Sardinia. However, after Octavian's naval forces lost at Cumae, Octavian lacked the resources to fight Sextus alone, so he asked Antony for help, extending their terms for another five years starting in 37 BC.

In helping Octavian, Antony expected to gain support for his own campaign against the Parthians. At Tarentum in mid-37 BC, Antony gave Octavian 120 ships to use against Sextus, while Octavian was to send 20,000 soldiers to Antony to use against Parthia. Two years later Octavian sent only a tenth of those promised, which Antony saw as a challenge. Meanwhile, Octavian assigned Agrippa to build the artificial harbor Portus Julius for training and building Octavian's navy.

Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint attack against Sextus in Sicily in 36 BC. Octavian was shipwrecked in Sicily, but Agrippa defeated Sextus at Mylae in August before almost destroying Sextus's forces at Naulochus in September. Sextus fled to the east, but Antony had him killed at Miletus in 35 BC.

As Lepidus and Octavian accepted the surrender of Sextus's soldiers, Lepidus tried to claim Sicily for himself. However, Lepidus's soldiers left him after Octavian paid them. Octavian forced Lepidus to retire but let him stay as pontifex maximus ('supreme pontiff'). Octavian protected the rights of Roman citizens to property, settled soldiers who finished their service outside Italy, and returned 30,000 slaves to their former owners after they had run away to join Sextus's army and navy. To keep his family safe once he returned to Rome, he had the Senate give him, his wife, and his sister tribunician immunity, or sacrosanctitas.

After defeating Sextus, Octavian campaigned in Illyricum (in what is now Croatia). During the first campaign in 35 BC he destroyed Segesta (modern Siscia) and was hurt by a falling siege tower when he besieged Metulum (along the Kolpa River). The Senate praised these efforts, though Octavian put off a victory celebration, and only later recognized the help of commanders Agrippa and Statilius Taurus.

War with Antony and Cleopatra

Main article: War of Actium

Further information: Reign of Cleopatra

In 36 BC, Octavian said the civil wars were over and suggested that he and Antony step down as triumvirs. Antony refused. Antony's campaign against the Parthians in 36 BC failed and damaged his reputation. The only 2,000 soldiers sent by Octavian to Antony, traveling with his wife Octavia, were not enough to replace Antony's lost forces. On the other hand, Cleopatra, with her great wealth, could restore his army to full strength. She and Antony had their third child, Ptolemy Philadelphus, born in 36 BC, so in 35 BC Antony decided to send Octavia back to Rome. Octavian attacked Antony for leaving his Roman wife for a foreign queen. He also tried to convince the Senate that Antony wanted to reduce the importance of Rome. When Octavian became consul in 33 BC, he began the Senate meeting with a strong attack on Antony's giving of titles and territories to his relatives and Cleopatra, later known as the Donations of Alexandria.

In early 32 BC, during an intense propaganda war with Octavian, Antony ended his marriage with Octavia. The new consuls Gaius Sosius and Gnaeus Ahenobarbus supported Antony and threatened to take away Octavian's power as a triumvir. This led Octavian to enter the Senate and denounce Antony and Sosius; both consuls and many senators then fled Rome for Antony. However, two of Antony's key supporters, Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius, switched to Octavian in autumn. They gave him important information about Antony's will, which Antony made public after marching to the Temple of Vesta. The will would have given away Roman lands as kingdoms for his sons to rule and named Alexandria as the place for his and Cleopatra's tomb.

In late 32 BC, the Senate took away Antony's upcoming position as consul and declared war on Cleopatra. Octavian used special powers to make men of military age across the Republic promise to support him. In early 31 BC, as Antony and Cleopatra moved to Greece, Octavian's forces under Agrippa crossed the Adriatic Sea and cut off their main army from their supplies in the Ionian Sea. Octavian then landed in Epirus and marched south. Trapped on land and sea, Antony's soldiers began to desert as Octavian prepared for battle.

Antony's navy sailed through the bay of Actium along the Ambracian Gulf of western Greece to break the blockade. There, they fought the Battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BC. Cleopatra and her part of the navy left early in the battle and Antony later joined them; Cleopatra's navy helped Antony's remaining forces in a final effort. Antony's soldiers on land surrendered to Octavian after trying to retreat through Macedonia. Various allied kings now switched to Octavian. Octavian later built a new city—Nicopolis ('victory city')—near the site of the battle at Actium.

On August 1, 30 BC, Octavian defeated Antony at Alexandria; Antony then died. After meeting with Octavian and refusing to be shown in a victory parade at Rome, Cleopatra died with poison. Knowing the danger of another possible heir to Caesar, Octavian ordered the death of Cleopatra's son Caesarion. He also had Antony's son Marcus Antonius Antyllus killed, but spared their other children and pardoned many of his opponents. Octavian had shown little mercy to surrendered enemies before. He also made sure Cleopatra was buried with Antony in their tomb. He appointed Cleopatra's daughter Cleopatra Selene II and her husband, Juba II of Numidia, as the new rulers of Mauretania following their marriage in 25 BC.

Sole ruler of Rome

Reign of Augustus

Constitutional reforms of Augustus

Coinage reform of Augustus

Propaganda in Augustan Rome

After winning many battles, Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome. He created a new way for Rome to be led that kept some old traditions but also brought new ideas. This helped bring peace and stability to the Roman world for many years.

Octavian, later known as Augustus, took control of important lands like Egypt directly. He made decisions to bring order and prosperity. He also focused on expanding Rome's influence and protecting its borders, ensuring Rome remained a powerful empire.

Death and succession

Main article: Reign of Augustus

Further information: Julio-Claudian dynasty and Julio-Claudian family tree

When Augustus became ill in 23 BC, he worried about who would take over after him. He needed to choose an heir carefully, so people wouldn't fear a monarchy.

Some believe Augustus first wanted his nephew Marcellus, who was married to his daughter Julia. Others think he preferred Marcus Agrippa, his trusted friend and commander. After Marcellus passed away, Augustus married Julia to Agrippa. They had five children together. Augustus also adopted his grandsons Gaius and Lucius as future leaders. He helped them start their political careers.

After Lucius and Gaius passed away, Augustus asked Tiberius to return to help govern. Tiberius became his adopted son and heir. Augustus also had another grandson, Agrippa Postumus, but he was sent away for his behavior.

Augustus passed away on 19 August AD 14 in Nola. His body was honored with a big procession to Rome, and Tiberius spoke at his funeral.

Further information: Roman Imperial cult, Sodales Augustales, Sanctuary of the Three Gauls, and Ara Ubiorum

The Senate decided that Augustus joined the gods after his death. Some places outside Rome had already honored him like a god, but in Rome only his spirit could be honored.

Legacy

Critical analysis

Ancient and contemporary views

People have had different opinions about Augustus for a long time. Some ancient writers did not like the changes he made to Rome’s government. Others thought he was a fair ruler. Even writers who were friends with Augustus sometimes had mixed feelings about how he ruled.

Middle Ages and Renaissance

During the Middle Ages, many Christian writers respected Augustus. They thought he helped create a peaceful world that made it possible for Jesus to be born. Later, during the Renaissance, opinions about Augustus varied again.

Modern perspectives

In more recent times, people have continued to have different views about Augustus. Some thinkers criticized him for taking too much power. Others admired the peace and order he brought to Rome. Today, historians recognize both the good and bad parts of his rule. They note that his long leadership helped shape Rome into a powerful empire and brought many years of peace.

Cultural depictions

Main article: Cultural depictions of Augustus

Augustus, the first emperor of Rome, has been shown in many artworks and stories. Ancient statues and coins often showed him looking young and strong, even when he was older. These images were carefully made to show him in the best way possible.

After ancient times, Augustus appeared in paintings, plays, movies, and books. Sometimes he is a main character, and other times he is a smaller part of the story. For example, in some plays by Shakespeare, he is shown as a less important or even unkind character. But in other stories, like the book I, Claudius, he is shown in a more caring way. Artists have painted scenes of Augustus bringing peace to Rome and even mixing his story with other important events.