Biblical canon

A biblical canon is a set of texts, also called "books," which a particular Jewish or Christian religious community regards as part of the Bible. The word canon comes from the Greek kanōn, meaning 'rule' or 'measuring stick'. It has been used to describe the list of books of the Bible accepted by the Christian Church as genuine and inspired since the 14th century.

Different religious groups include different books in their biblical canons, sometimes dividing or combining books in various ways. The Jewish Tanakh (or Hebrew Bible) contains 24 books split into three parts: the five books of the Torah, the eight books of the Nevi'im, and the eleven books of Ketuvim. The first part of Christian Bibles is the Old Testament, which at minimum includes the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible but is often divided into 39 books by Protestant groups or 46 books by Catholic groups. The second part is the New Testament, which almost always contains 27 books including the four canonical gospels, Acts of the Apostles, 21 Epistles, and the Book of Revelation. Some Christian groups also have additional holy scriptures that they consider important but do not include in the Bible.

Jewish canons

Main article: Development of the Hebrew Bible canon

Rabbinic Judaism recognizes twenty-four books called the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible. These books were chosen over many years, mostly between 200 BC and 200 AD. Some believe the Torah was chosen around 400 BC, the Prophets around 200 BC, and the Writings around 100 AD.

The Book of Deuteronomy says not to add or take away anything from these books. The Book of Nehemiah tells how the priest Ezra brought important books back to Jerusalem after leaving Babylon.

Another group, the Samaritans, has their own version of the first five books of the Bible, called the Samaritan Pentateuch. They believe Moses received the Ten Commandments on Mount Gerizim, not Mount Sinai, and that sacrifices should happen there, not in Jerusalem. Samaritans only accept these five books as their holy scriptures and do not include any other Bible books. They highly respect their version of the Torah and believe they guard the true law.

Main article: Samaritan Pentateuch

Christian canons

The Council of Trent (1545–1563) set the 73-book canon for the Catholic Church, with 46 books in the Old Testament and 27 in the New Testament. Before this, regional councils like the Council of Rome (382), Synod of Hippo (393), and Councils of Carthage (397 and 419) had affirmed the collection of scriptures.

The Church of England and Presbyterians finalized their canons with the Thirty-Nine Articles (1563) and the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647). The Synod of Jerusalem (1672) established additional canons accepted in the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Different forms of Jewish Christianity existed until around the fifth century, canonizing various books, including Jewish–Christian gospels that are now lost. These works are classified as New Testament apocrypha by scholars.

The Old and New Testament canons developed together, with most primary sources specifying books for both Testaments. For the biblical scriptures accepted in major Christian traditions, see Canons of various traditions.

Purpose of canon

For churches that follow sola scriptura, having a clear list of canonical books is essential. For churches that value sacred Tradition or Magisterium along with Scripture, the Bible’s role is more integrated with the church’s practices.

Theologian William J. Abraham suggested that the early church’s main reason for canonizing Scripture was to provide an authorized list of books for worship. The factor that decided which books were included was their actual use in the Church.

Early Church

Earliest Christian communities

The Early Church used the Old Testament, specifically the Septuagint among Greek speakers. The Apostles did not leave a defined set of new scriptures; instead, the New Testament developed over time.

Writings attributed to the apostles circulated among early Christian communities. Being possibly apostolic was a strong reason to consider a book canonical.

The Second Epistle of Peter suggests that Pauline epistles were part of the scriptures known and read by the early church.

The Pauline epistles were collected by the end of the 1st century AD. Justin Martyr, in the early 2nd century, mentioned the "memoirs of the Apostles," called gospels, which were considered authoritative like the Old Testament.

Marcion's list

Marcion of Sinope was the first Christian leader to propose a uniquely Christian canon around 140. This included 10 epistles from Paul and an edited version of the Gospel of Luke, known as the Gospel of Marcion. His list influenced how Christians divided texts into those that fit accepted theological thought and those that promoted heresy, shaping the Bible’s final structure.

Apostolic Fathers

Irenaeus asserted a four-gospel canon (the Tetramorph) around 130–202 AD, explaining that the church, spread across the world with four universal winds and four quarters of the earth, should have four pillars of the gospel.

Irenaeus quoted from nearly all New Testament books except Philemon, II Peter, III John, and Jude. He referred to the Shepherd of Hermas as "scripture" and considered I Clement authoritative.

By the early 3rd century, Christian theologians like Origen of Alexandria used the same 27 books in modern New Testament editions, though disputes remained about some writings.

Eastern Church

Alexandrian Fathers

Origen of Alexandria included almost all current New Testament books except James, 2nd Peter, and the 2nd and 3rd epistles of John. He also included the Shepherd of Hermas, later rejected.

In his Easter letter of 367, Patriarch Athanasius of Alexandria listed exactly the 27 books that would become the New Testament proto-canon.

Fifty Bibles of Constantine

In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius recorded Alexandrian scribes preparing Bibles around 340 for Constans. These Bibles, like Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, contain almost the full Septuagint.

Eastern canons

Eastern Churches generally felt less need to strictly define the canon. They recognized variations in spiritual quality among accepted books and were less likely to claim rejected books had no spiritual value. The Trullan Synod of 691–692 endorsed several lists of canonical writings, though these lists did not always agree.

Peshitta

The Peshitta is the standard Bible version for Syriac tradition churches. It originally excluded some disputed books but later included them in the Harklean Version of 616.

Western Church

Latin Fathers

The Synod of Hippo Regius in 393 may have been the first Council to accept the present Catholic canon. This was read at and accepted by the Council of Carthage in 397 and 419. These councils occurred under Augustine of Hippo’s influence.

Augustine declared that churches should prefer books accepted by all Catholic Churches over those accepted by only some. He included the Book of Hebrews based on the prestige of more numerous and weightier churches.

Pope Damasus I’s Council of Rome in 382 issued a biblical canon identical to the one mentioned above. Damasus’ commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition around 383 helped fix the canon in the West.

In a letter around 405 to Exsuperius of Toulouse, Pope Innocent I mentioned the sacred books already received in the canon. When bishops and Councils addressed the Biblical canon, they were ratifying existing church beliefs.

Council of Florence

Before the Protestant Reformation, the Council of Florence (1439–1443) took place. With ecumenical council approval, Pope Eugenius IV issued papal bulls to restore Eastern churches into communion with Rome. Catholic theologians consider these documents infallible statements of Catholic doctrine. The Decretum pro Jacobitis lists books received by the Catholic Church as inspired but does not use the terms "canon" or "canonical."

Luther's canon and apocrypha

Martin Luther proposed that canonical material should preach Christ. This led him to place seven Old Testament books into a section called the "Apocrypha."

Luther moved Tobit, Judith, 1–2 Maccabees, Wisdom, Sirach, and Baruch into this secondary status. These are called anagignoskomena by the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Lutheran and Anglican lectionaries continue to include readings from the Apocrypha.

Council of Trent

In response to Martin Luther’s demands, the Council of Trent on 8 April 1546 approved the present Catholic Bible canon, including deuterocanonical books. The decision was confirmed by an anathema vote.

The council confirmed the same list as produced at the Council of Florence in 1442, Augustine’s Councils of Carthage, and probably Damasus’ Council of Rome. The Old Testament books rejected by Luther were termed deuterocanonical, meaning later approval, not lesser inspiration. The Sixto-Clementine Vulgate included several books considered apocryphal by the council.

Protestant confessions

Several Protestant confessions of faith identify the 27 books of the New Testament canon, including the French Confession of Faith (1559), the Belgic Confession (1561), and the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647). The Second Helvetic Confession (1562) affirmed both Testaments as the true Word of God and rejected the Apocrypha’s canonicity.

The Thirty-Nine Articles, issued by the Church of England in 1563, named the Old Testament books but not the New Testament. The Belgic Confession and the Westminster Confession named the 39 Old Testament books and rejected any others besides the New Testament books.

The Lutheran Epitome of the Formula of Concord of 1577 declared that the prophetic and apostolic Scriptures comprised the Old and New Testaments alone. Luther did not accept the Apocrypha’s canonicity but believed its books were useful to read. Lutheran and Anglican lectionaries continue to include Apocrypha readings.

Other apocrypha

Various books never canonized by any church but known from antiquity resemble the New Testament and often claim apostolic authorship. These are known as the New Testament apocrypha. Some early Christians cited these as scripture, but by the fifth century, consensus limited the New Testament to the 27 modern canon books. Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant churches generally do not view these as part of the Bible.

Canons of various Jewish and Christian traditions

Old Testament

Main article: Development of the Old Testament canon

See also: Reception of the book of Enoch in antiquity and Middle Ages

Different groups of people have different books they consider important parts of their holy writings. Some books are called the deuterocanon by Catholics, anagignoskomena by Eastern Orthodox Churches, and the biblical apocrypha by Protestants. These books are seen as part of scripture by some groups but not all. For example, Protestants do not see them as divinely inspired. Some Bibles, like the English King James Bible and the Lutheran Bible, include a section called "Apocrypha".

Many groups respect these deuterocanonical books but do not place them on the same level as other Bible books. Anglicanism suggests reading them for examples of life but not for teaching doctrines. Martin Luther also thought they were useful to read but not equal to the Holy Scriptures.

New Testament

Main articles: Development of the New Testament canon, New Testament apocrypha, and Antilegomena

There are other writings that some early groups considered important, even though they are not usually part of the New Testament today. For example, the Epistle to the Laodiceans was in some old Bibles, and the Third Epistle to the Corinthians was once part of the Armenian Orthodox Bible.

The Didache and The Shepherd of Hermas were once seen as very important by some early Christian leaders, but they are not considered part of the Bible today. However, some traditions still honor them.

Old Testament table

This table lists seventy-four books and additions. See notes below table.

Old Testament table notes

New Testament table

This table lists fifty-two books. See notes below table.

New Testament table notes