Creation of Yugoslavia

The creation of Yugoslavia refers to the events that led to the formation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918, a union of the South Slavs. This happened as a result of the dissolution of Austria-Hungary at the end of the First World War. The idea was based on Yugoslavism, a movement aiming to bring together South Slavic peoples.

South Slavs living under the rule of the Habsburg monarchy formed the Yugoslav Committee to prevent other countries from taking their land. They worked with the Kingdom of Serbia, which had promised to unite all South Slavs. Together, they signed the Corfu Declaration, agreeing to form a new country.

In October 1918, a group called the National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs declared independence for the South Slavic parts of Austria-Hungary. They wanted to create a country with a confederal system, but Serbia did not agree to this. Under pressure from losing land to Italy and facing unrest, the council asked the Royal Serbian Army for help and sought unification with Serbia.

A delegation went to Belgrade to meet Serbian prince regent Alexander. Instead of demanding a federal system as instructed, they asked to join Serbia with few conditions. On December 1, 1918, Alexander announced the creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The country later received wider diplomatic recognition during the Paris Peace Conference, and its borders were set through various agreements and elections in the following years.

Background

Yugoslavism

During the First World War, people in parts of Austria-Hungary who were South Slavic—such as the Croats, Serbs, Slovenes, and Muslim Slavs (Bosniaks)—wanted to create their own country. They believed that all South Slavs were part of one group with shared history and language. Some wanted a single government for all South Slavs, while others wanted a union where each group could keep its own traditions and culture.

National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs

In October 1918, near the end of the First World War, leaders from Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia formed the National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. This group aimed to make their lands independent from Austria-Hungary and called their new area the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs.

Yugoslav Committee

Main article: Yugoslav Committee

The National Council chose the Yugoslav Committee—a group of leaders living outside their home lands—to speak for them. This committee had talked with Serbia’s government and agreed to work together to unite South Slavs in a new country. They wanted to make sure no single group would control the new nation.

Kingdom of Serbia

Serbia saw the war as a chance to grow its land. They wanted to add areas where South Slavs lived, like parts of Austria-Hungary, to their country. After facing hard times in the war, Serbia’s leaders said uniting all South Slavs was their goal. Later, when the war was almost over, Serbia’s army moved back into areas they had lost and reached the city of Belgrade.

Prelude

State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs

The Croatian Sabor voted to end ties with Austria-Hungary and join the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. This new state included areas ruled by Austria-Hungary, from the Soča River to the city of Thessaloniki on the Aegean coast. Regional councils were set up in Ljubljana, Sarajevo, and Split to represent different parts of the new state.

On 31 October, the National Council announced that the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs was ready to form a common state with Serbia. However, there were disagreements on how to unify and what kind of government the new country should have. Some wanted quick unification, while others were cautious about Serbia's strong position. Talks were held in Geneva, but the Serbian government later rejected the plans made there.

Social unrest grew, and the National Council asked the Serbian army to help control the situation. Meanwhile, Serbian troops moved into several regions. Austria-Hungary had already surrendered, and Italian forces moved into some areas as well.

Geneva conference

Representatives from the National Council and Serbia met in Geneva to discuss forming a new unified South Slav state. They agreed on a plan for a confederation where Serbia and the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs would be equal partners. The Kingdom of Montenegro was also invited to join. However, the Serbian government later rejected this plan. A Serbian officer threatened to take over the territories if they did not agree to unify quickly, causing some to change their minds about wanting a federation.

On 14 November, the Serbian government informed the leaders that they rejected the Geneva plan, as it did not give Serbia the leading role in the unification.

Final preparations

Lipošćak affair

Main article: Lipošćak affair

As Italian forces moved closer, the National Council felt that unification was urgent. On November 19, a new governor was appointed for Dalmatia by Italy. Just before a big meeting about unification, a plot was uncovered to change the government. The person accused of leading this plot was a former general who had just returned to Zagreb. After his arrest, there were many rumors, but he was later cleared of all charges. This event made some people push for quicker unification with Serbia for safety.

Unification decision and instructions

On November 23, the National Council met in Zagreb and decided that they needed to act quickly to avoid problems. They received a message from Dalmatia saying that if unification with Serbia wasn’t decided soon, Dalmatia would join Serbia on its own. Bosnia and Herzegovina also supported this idea. At the meeting, one person spoke strongly against quick unification, saying it wasn’t what most Croats wanted. He suggested a different plan with three leaders and local governments, but his idea was rejected.

The National Council decided to unify quickly with Serbia and chose a group of 28 people to go to Belgrade to make arrangements. They wanted the new country to have a federal system and a constitution approved by most people. They also decided which areas the central government would control and which ones local governments would handle. The group left for Belgrade the next day, after some discussion and a vote.

November annexations

Vojvodina

Main article: 1918 annexation of Vojvodina

In November 1918, many Serbs in areas called Bačka, Banat, and Baranya — known together as Vojvodina — wanted to leave Austria-Hungary. Some supported joining through a group in Zagreb, while others wanted to join Serbia directly. On November 3, a group formed in Novi Sad to help Serbia take over. At the same time, a short-lived group in Timișoara called the Banat Republic wanted to be separate but still linked to Hungary. Serbian soldiers moved into Vojvodina, taking control.

A meeting happened in Novi Sad on November 17 to discuss what the people of Vojvodina wanted. Elections were held, and 757 people became delegates. Most were Serbs, with some others like Bunjevci and Slovaks. On November 25, the group decided that Vojvodina should be part of Serbia and asked Serbia to represent them at peace talks.

Montenegro

Main article: Podgorica Assembly

King Nikola left Montenegro in 1916 after fighting with Austria-Hungary. Some leaders stayed and gave up, hoping to get help to bring Montenegro back. Nikola later supported joining with other South Slavic peoples. Before the war ended, a leader named Andrija Radović worked with Serbia to help Montenegro join.

In September 1918, Serbian soldiers moved into Montenegro to stop others from taking control. They set up a group on October 28 to organize a meeting. Rules were made for elections, and the meeting was held in Podgorica on November 19. The group voting to join Serbia won, and on November 26, they decided Montenegro would join Serbia under its ruling family. They sent messages to King Nikola, the Serbian government, and others about their decision.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina did not join Serbia right away, but there was pressure to do so. Many local groups voted to join Serbia, especially in Bosanska Krajina and Banja Luka. The Serbian government asked its army to help Bosnia and Herzegovina join and put pressure on its leaders. One leader, Atanasije Šola, resisted because the regent of Serbia wanted Bosnia and Herzegovina to join as part of a larger group including Slovenia and Croatia.

Proclamation of unification

On November 27, a group from the National Council left Zagreb and arrived in Belgrade the next day. They met with leaders from Serbia to discuss how to announce the creation of a new country. After some discussion, they decided to proclaim the unification of several lands into one new state.

The ceremony happened on December 1 at night in Belgrade. The new country was called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and later it was renamed Yugoslavia. This marked the start of a united country for many South Slavic peoples.

Aftermath

Allied occupation and recognition

Further information: Allied occupation of the eastern Adriatic

Yugoslavia did not quickly receive official recognition from the Allied powers. Its delegation at the Paris Peace Conference was treated as part of the Kingdom of Serbia. The United States started recognizing Yugoslavia in February 1919, but other Allies waited because of Italy's demands. When Italy briefly left the conference, Yugoslavia gained more recognition at the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919.

Allied forces occupied the Adriatic coast right after the armistice, dividing it into four zones led by Italy, the United States, France, and the United Kingdom. British troops left when Italian forces withdrew from Rijeka after Italian nationalist Gabriele D'Annunzio took control there. Military rule continued in some zones until late 1920. The US mission ended in September 1921, concluding the occupation.

Borders and population

The peace conference set parts of Yugoslavia's borders. The border with Republic of German-Austria was fixed in September 1919 by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. This followed a conflict where Slovene leaders pushed for control in parts of Carinthia and Lower Styria, including the city of Klagenfurt and Maribor. The border was settled by a vote in 1920.

Yugoslavia's border with Bulgaria was set in November 1919 by the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine. The border with Romania was decided when Romania gave up part of Banat in June 1919. The border with Hungary was settled by the Treaty of Trianon in June 1920, confirming Yugoslav control of Vojvodina and areas like Međimurje and Prekmurje.

The border with Italy caused disputes over the Adriatic coast and the city of Rijeka. After talks, the Treaty of Rapallo in November 1920 set the border, giving Italy parts of the coast and creating the independent Free State of Fiume.

Yugoslavia held its first census in 1921, showing a population of over 12 million. Most lived in areas that were once part of Austria-Hungary. The country had many different ethnic groups, with Serbs and Montenegrins making up nearly 39%, Croats about 24%, and Slovenes around 8. Most people worked on farms. Education levels varied, with Slovenia having nearly full literacy and Serbia around 35%.

Interim bodies

Main article: Temporary National Representation

The first Yugoslav government was chosen by the regent. Political parties agreed on 11 December 1918 that Pašić should be prime minister, but the regent chose Protić instead on 20 December. Most government ministers came from the Democratic Party.

An interim parliament called the Temporary National Representation was created on 24 February 1919 by the regent’s order. It met for the first time in Belgrade on 1 March. The government limited what this parliament could do. Later, elections in November 1920 chose members of the Constitutional Assembly, which approved the Vidovdan Constitution in June 1921, setting up a central government.

Economic integration and unrest

After political union, Yugoslavia faced economic challenges. Some areas traded more with outside markets than with each other. Policies to unite the economy caused tension among ethnic groups and political issues, like introducing the Yugoslav krone and land reforms. Serbian industry, centered around Belgrade, struggled to recover after the war, leading to unemployment and low wages. This helped the growing Communist Party of Yugoslavia and allowed Croatia’s industry to grow faster than Serbia’s.

Unrest was common in the early years. Soon after unification, a protest against the monarchy in Zagreb was stopped with force. Before 1920, violence broke out in Croatia’s countryside. In 1920, a rebellion in Croatia began when soldiers tried to brand animals. In Kosovo, ethnic Albanians rebelled, known as the Kachak Movement. The government sent troops and tried to settle Serbs and Montenegrins there. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, violence occurred between ethnic groups. In Montenegro, there was an uprising against the monarchy in 1919, and the local Orthodox Church lost its independence.