Electronics

Electronics is a scientific and engineering area that studies how to design and create devices using the behavior of electrons and other electrically charged particles. It is a part of physics and electrical engineering that uses special parts like transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits to control electric current. These devices can change energy from one type to another, like turning alternating current into direct current or changing signals from analog to digital.

Electronic devices have changed many parts of our lives, including telecommunications, entertainment, education, health care, industry, and security. The growth of electronics is driven largely by the semiconductor industry, which creates increasingly advanced devices to meet worldwide needs. This industry is one of the biggest and most successful in the global economy.

For personal or home use electronic devices, see Consumer electronics. For the journal, see Electronics (magazine).

History and development

See also: History of electronics engineering and Timeline of electrical and electronics engineering

Important discoveries in the late 1800s and early 1900s started the field of electronics. Scientists made devices that could control tiny electric currents, which led to inventions like radios and televisions.

The invention of the transistor in 1947 changed everything. It was smaller and better than older parts, and it helped create modern computers and many other devices we use today. Over time, engineers learned to build even smaller parts and put many of them together on a single chip, making electronics smaller, faster, and more powerful.

Subfields

Electronics includes many different areas of study and work. Some important subfields are Analog electronics, Audio electronics, Avionics, Bioelectronics, Circuit design, Digital electronics, Electronic components, Embedded systems, Integrated circuits, Microelectronics, Nanoelectronics, Optoelectronics, Power electronics, Printed circuit boards, Semiconductor devices, Sensors, and Telecommunications. These areas help create the devices we use every day, from music players to medical tools. Each subfield focuses on different ways to control and use electric currents to make useful tools and machines.

Devices and components

Main article: Electronic component

An electronic component is a part used in an electronic system or device. These parts are connected together, often on a special board, to make a circuit that does something useful. Some parts work by themselves, while others are grouped together in tiny chips called integrated circuits. Simple parts include capacitors, inductors, and resistors, while more complex ones, like transistors and thyristors, help control the flow of electricity.

Types of circuits

Electronic circuits can be divided into two main types: analog and digital. Analog circuits use a smooth range of voltages or currents to process signals, unlike digital circuits which use only two levels, usually called 0 and 1. In the past, analog circuits were very common in devices like radios, but today many of these tasks are done using digital methods.

Digital circuits are the foundation of modern computers and many electronic devices. They use simple on/off signals to perform complex tasks. These circuits are built using tiny parts called transistors and can range from simple switches to very advanced chips that power computers and other digital tools.

Main article: Analog electronics

Main article: Digital electronics

• Logic gates
• Adders
• Flip-flops
• Counters
• Registers
• Multiplexers
• Schmitt triggers

Highly integrated devices:

• Memory chip
• Microprocessors
• Microcontrollers
• Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)
• Digital signal processor (DSP)
• Field-programmable gate array (FPGA)
• Field-programmable analog array (FPAA)
• System on chip (SOC)

Design

Electronic systems design is about creating complex devices like mobile phones and computers. It involves planning how these devices will work, making sure they function well, and thinking about how they will be used and taken care of.

Engineers often test their designs in labs to make sure everything works as planned. Today, many use special computer programs to simulate these tests instead of physical experiments. These programs help design circuits using ready-made parts like power supplies and tiny components that control electricity.

Negative qualities

Thermal management

Main article: Thermal management of electronic devices and systems

Electronic devices can create heat, and this heat needs to be taken away to keep the devices working well. If too much heat builds up, the device might break. We can help remove heat using things like heat sinks and fans that move air, or even water cooling. These methods help keep devices cool.

Noise

Main article: Electronic noise

Sometimes, electronic devices pick up extra signals that are not wanted. These extra signals are called noise and can make it hard to hear or see what you really want. Noise happens in all electronic devices. It can come from heat or other things, and making the device cooler can help reduce some types of noise.

Packaging methods

Main articles: Electronic packaging and Semiconductor package

Over the years, many ways to connect parts in electronics have been used. Early electronics often used point to point wiring with parts placed on wooden boards to build circuits. Other methods included cordwood construction and wire wrap. Today, most electronics use printed circuit boards made from materials like FR-4 and FR-2. Parts are attached to these boards using either through-hole or surface mount techniques.

Recently, there has been more focus on health and environmental issues related to making electronics.

Industry

Further information: Consumer electronics, List of best-selling electronic devices, and Semiconductor industry

The electronics industry has many parts, with the semiconductor industry being the most important. It makes more than $481 billion each year. The biggest part of the electronics industry is e-commerce, which made over $29 trillion in 2017.

The most common electronic device made is the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), with about 13 sextillion of them made between 1960 and 2018. In the 1960s, U.S. companies struggled to compete with Japanese companies like Sony and Hitachi. By the 1980s, U.S. companies became leaders in making semiconductors.

Later, in the 1990s and after, the industry moved mostly to East Asia because of cheaper labor and better technology there. Over time, the U.S. share of making semiconductors dropped from 37% in 1990 to 12% in 2022. Today, Taiwan leads in advanced semiconductors, followed by South Korea, the United States, Japan, Singapore, and China. Important semiconductor factories are also found in Europe, Southeast Asia, South America, and Israel.