Glossary of ancient Roman religion

The vocabulary of ancient Roman religion was highly specialized. Studying these words helps us understand the religion, traditions, and beliefs of the ancient Romans. Many of these ideas influenced later European culture, especially the Christian Church. This glossary explains important concepts in Latin related to religious practices and beliefs. It includes links to articles about major topics such as priesthoods, forms of divination, and rituals.

For the names and titles of gods, called theonyms and epithets, see the List of Roman deities. To learn about public religious holidays, explore Roman festivals. For information on temples, visit the List of Ancient Roman temples. Specific landmarks related to religious places in ancient Rome are not included here; see Roman temple for more details.

Glossary

A

The word abominari means to reject or avoid an unwanted sign. It was used in Roman religion to ignore bad signs. The noun form is abominatio, which is where the English word "abomination" comes from.

The aedes was a place where a god lived. It was a building that held the god’s image, different from a sacred area called a templum. The word can be translated as "shrine" or "temple." For example, the Temple of Vesta was called an aedes in Latin.

The word ager means land or territory. In religion, it referred to land used for making signs from birds. There were five types of ager, including Romanus (land around Rome), Gabinus (land near the town of Gabii), and peregrinus (other lands under treaty with Rome).

The ara was an altar, a focal point for sacrifices. Most altars in Rome were simple outdoor structures, sometimes located within a sacred area but often without a building to house a god’s image. One well-known altar is the Ara Pacis, which shows Greek influence in its design.

Some trees were considered lucky or blessed (felix), while others were seen as unlucky (infelix). Lucky trees included oak, birch, and hazelnut, while unlucky trees included buckthorn and fern. The oak tree was sacred to the god Jupiter.

The verb attrectare meant to touch sacred objects during religious ceremonies. It had a positive meaning when done by authorized priests but a negative meaning if done by others.

An augur was a priest who interpreted signs from the gods, especially the flight of birds, to guide important decisions. Taking these signs was a key part of Roman religion and government.

B

A bellum iustum was a war considered right or justified according to Roman religious rules. It required following certain formal steps and having a good reason, like defending against an attack.

C

The word caerimonia referred to rituals or ceremonies. It could mean "sacred duty" or "ritual acts." These rituals were important for connecting humans with the divine.

The calatores were assistants to senior priests, handling everyday tasks. They were public slaves.

Priests and others performing rituals often covered their heads with a fold of their toga, called capite velato. This showed respect and piety.

A carmen was a chant or spell used in magic and religion. It had a set form and rhythm.

Being castus or castitas meant being pure or morally clean, which was important in Roman religion for priests and rituals.

The cinctus Gabinus was a way of wearing the toga that allowed free arm movement. It was used in combat and some religious ceremonies.

The phrase clavo trabali figere meant to fix or settle something important. It referred to driving a nail into the wall of the Temple of Jupiter to mark the year.

A collegium was a group with legal status, like a club or association. Religious groups, such as the College of Pontiffs, were important in Roman religion.

The comitia calata were special assemblies called for religious purposes, not for voting. They were used to appoint religious leaders.

The Commentaries of the Augurs were written records of the augurs’ decisions and opinions. They were kept but not for public use.

The Commentaries of the Pontiffs recorded the decisions and actions of the College of Pontiffs. These were important for religious law and practice.

D

A decretum was a formal decision or ruling made by priests on religious matters.

A delubrum was a shrine or sacred building. It could house a god’s image and was an older form of temple.

When someone moved to a new family through adoption, they performed a ritual called detestatio sacrorum to give up their old religious duties and take on new ones.

The words deus (god), dea (goddess), di or dii (gods) were used to refer to divine beings. They had different roles and functions in Roman religion.

The devotio was a solemn vow where a general might offer his own life in battle for a victory, as a way to please the gods.

The dies imperii was the anniversary of an emperor’s accession to power. It was celebrated with loyalty oaths and offerings.

The dies lustricus was a purification ritual for newborns, usually on the eighth or ninth day after birth, when the child received its name.

The dies natalis was a birthday or anniversary of a founding event. Birthdays were celebrated annually in Rome, unlike in Greece. Temples also had birthdays based on their founding dates.

E

The verb effari meant to create boundaries with fixed words. Effatio was the act of setting these boundaries as part of a ceremony.

The evocatio was a ritual to call a deity from an enemy city to support Rome, often used during sieges or after victories.

An exauguratio was a ceremony to remove a deity from a place that had been marked out for religious use.

The adjective eximius described sacrificial victims of high quality, chosen for their appearance or size.

The exta were the entrails of a sacrificed animal, examined for signs of divine approval.

F

Fanaticus described people devoted to a cult or shrine, sometimes in an emotional way. It could also refer to trees struck by lightning, considered sacred.

A fanum was a sacred plot of land, a sanctuary, or a temple built there. It was a general term for sacred spaces.

Fata deorum were prophecies or utterances of the gods, recorded and kept by priests for consultation.

Fas meant what was religiously right or permissible. It was important in Roman religion to follow fas.

Records of official and religious events were kept as fasti. These included dates for public business and religious observances.

In religion, felix meant blessed or favored by the gods. It described a state of harmony with the divine.

A feria was a day off from work, a public holiday. These days were set aside for rest and religious observances.

A dies festus was a festive or holy day dedicated to a deity. No ordinary business was allowed on these days.

The fetiales were priests who dealt with treaties and declarations of war.

The finis was a boundary or limit, important in defining sacred spaces and property lines.

The flamines were priests who served specific deities. They wore special clothing and had important duties in Roman religion.

The Fratres Arvales were priests concerned with agriculture and farming, said to be created by Romulus.

G

The adjective gabinus described religious practices attributed to the town of Gabii, such as a special way of wearing the toga.

H

The hostia was an animal offered in sacrifice. It was examined to ensure it was suitable for the gods.

I

An inauratio was a ritual where someone received divine approval for their appointment, performed by augurs.

The indigitamenta were lists of gods kept by priests to ensure the correct names were used in prayers.

The invocatio was the act of calling upon a deity in prayer or spell, using the correct name and titles.

Ius meant justice, right, or law. It included both human and divine law.

Ius divinum was divine or sacred law, important for maintaining good relations with the gods.

Ius pontificum was the law governing Roman religion, covering rites, vows, holidays, and graves.

L

Lavatio was the ritual bathing of a deity’s statue, especially for goddesses like Cybele.

A lectisternium was a ceremony where gods were offered a meal as if they were seated on couches.

Lex referred to laws, which in Rome were often bound to religious oaths and sacrifices.

Libatio was a ritual pouring of a drink, such as wine, as an offering to the gods.

Liberatio was the ritual freeing of a place from unwanted spirits before a ceremony.

The libri augurales were the core books of the augurs, containing their knowledge and practices.

The libri pontificales were core texts of Roman religion, including rituals and records, attributed to the Sabine king Numa.

Litatio was the certification of divine approval after inspecting the entrails of a sacrificed animal.

The lituus was the curved staff carried by augurs, symbolizing their role.

A lucus was a sacred grove or wooded area dedicated to a deity.

Ludi were games held as part of religious festivals, sometimes with a sacrificial element.

The Luperci were priests who participated in the Lupercalia festival, known for their wolf-like rituals.

Lustratio was a purification ritual held every five years in Rome, originally involving washing in water.

M

Manubia referred to the power of a deity to wield lightning, represented by a lightning bolt in divine images.

Miraculum was a term for a surprising or wonderful sign, emphasizing the observer’s reaction.

Mola salsa was ritually prepared salted flour, sprinkled on sacrificial victims and altars as part of Roman religion.

A monstrum was a sign of divine displeasure, disrupting the natural order. It was seen as a warning.

Mundus referred to the world or a ritual pit in Rome, opened only on certain days for offerings to underworld deities.

N

Nefas described something contrary to divine law, religiously offensive.

Nefastus described days when official transactions were forbidden for religious reasons.

Nemus meant forest or woodland, with some areas considered sacred, like the nemus of Anna Perenna.

Nuntiatio was the augur’s announcement of observed signs before an assembly.

O

Obnuntiatio was a declaration by an augur to suspend or cancel a public action due to unfavorable signs.

Observatio was the interpretation of signs according to tradition, used by augurs and haruspices.

An omen was a sign indicating the future, important to the individual but less so to the community than a prodigy.

Ostentarium was a written collection interpreting signs, used by experts until late antiquity.

Ostentum was a sign showing something to a person, interpreted within the Etruscan discipline.

The ordo sacerdotum was the religious hierarchy of priests at sacrificial banquets.

P

Paludatus described a military commander wearing the paludamentum, a ritual part of their attire.

Pax deorum was the harmony or peace between gods and humans, maintained through correct religious practices.

A piaculum was an expiatory sacrifice to make amends for a fault or to avert divine anger.

Pietas was devotion to the gods, state, and family, a key Roman virtue.

Pius described actions in accord with divine law, often used for the hero Aeneas.

Pollucere meant to consecrate.

A pontifex was a high-ranking priest, with the Pontifex Maximus as the chief.

The popa was a lower-ranking officiant at sacrifices, often carrying a mallet or axe.

Porricere meant to offer something as a sacrifice, especially the entrails of a victim.

Portentum was a sign interpreted by a haruspex, often synonymous with ostentum or prodigy.

Precatio was the formal addressing of deities in a ritual, part of prayers.

Prex meant prayer, often used in the plural for formal requests to deities.

Prodigium was an unnatural event signaling divine displeasure, requiring expiation to avoid further wrath.

Profanum meant not sacred, belonging to humans rather than the gods.

Propitius described favorable signs in augury, indicating divine approval.

Pulvinar was a couch used to display images of gods during ceremonies like the lectisternium.

R

The regina sacrorum was the wife of the rex sacrorum, serving as a high priestess with specific duties.

Religio meant obligation to the gods or religious duty, emphasizing correct practice over faith.

Religiosus described something pertaining to the gods or marked as theirs, distinct from sacer or sanctus.

Res divinae were divine affairs, matters pertaining to the gods, explored in Varro’s works.

Resposum was the written opinion or argument of priests on religious questions.

The rex sacrorum was a priestly role reserved for patricians, second in prestige only to the Pontifex Maximus.

Ritus meant the traditional and correct manner of performing rituals, akin to a way or custom.

Ritus graecus referred to Roman religious practices influenced by Greek rites, such as wearing Greek-style clothing during ceremonies.

S

Sacellum was a small shrine, less complex than a full temple.

Sacer described something or someone given to the gods, sacred and inviolable.

Sacerdos was a priest or priestess, performing sacred acts.

Sacra were traditional cult practices, public or private, overseen by the College of Pontiffs.

Sacra gentilicia were private rites of a clan, important for family identity and commemorating the dead.

Sacra municipalia were the religious practices of a town continued under Roman supervision.

Sacramentum was a solemn oath or vow, rendering the swearer sacer if violated, used in law and military contexts.

Sacrarium was a place for storing sacred objects, similar to a small shrine.

Sacrificium was an event or thing dedicated to the gods, fundamental to religio.

Sacrosanctus described the inviolability of certain magistrates, like the tribunes of the plebs.

The Salii were the leaping priests of Mars.

Sancio meant to ratify a compact with a sanction or penalty.

Sanctus described something established as inviolable or sacred, distinct from sacer and religiosus.

Servare de caelo meant to observe the sky for signs of auspices.

Signum was a sign or token indicating divine activity or communication.

Silentium was silence required during religious rituals to ensure correctness.

Sinister originally meant well-fated, as augurs faced south, but later came to mean ill-fated under Greek influence.

Sodalitas was a voluntary association or society, sometimes forming priestly groups or burial societies.

Spectio was the observation of omens through the sky, birds, or their feeding, a practice of patrician magistrates and augurs.

Sponsio was a formal, religiously guaranteed obligation, such as a betrothal or a magistrate’s promise in treaties.

Superstitio described excessive or irregular religious practice, contrasting with proper religio.

Supplicatio were days of public prayer and thanksgiving, often in response to crises or divine aid.

T

Tabernaculum was a tent or shelter used in augury, the origin of the English word "tabernacle."

Templum was a sacred space defined by an augur for ritual purposes, such as taking auspices, cut off as holy ground.

V

Verba certa were exact, unchangeable words in legal or religious formulas.

Verba concepta were verbal formulas that could be adapted for specific circumstances.

Ver sacrum was a ritual migration, a sacred spring.

Victima was an animal offering in sacrifice, examined for suitability, with some distinctions from hostia.

Victimarius was an attendant at sacrifices who handled the animal, leading it to the altar.

Vitium was a fault or defect in a ritual, disrupting augural procedure and potentially tainting outcomes.

Vitulari meant chanting or reciting a formula joyfully, related to the Vitulatio offering.

Votum was a vow or promise made to a deity, an aspect of the contractual nature of Roman religion.