Hathor

Hathor was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion who played many important roles. As a sky deity, she was the mother or partner of powerful gods like Horus and Ra, who were linked to kingship. Because of this, she was seen as the symbolic mother of the pharaohs, the rulers of Egypt. Hathor also had a protective side, acting as the Eye of Ra to guard against enemies, while her gentle side brought beauty, music, dance, joy, love, and care for mothers and children.

Hathor was often shown as a cow, representing her caring and heavenly nature, but she was most commonly pictured as a woman with a special headdress of cow horns and a sun disk. Sometimes she appeared as a lioness, a cobra, or a sycomore tree. Worship of goddesses like Hathor dates back thousands of years, and she became one of Egypt’s most important deities, especially during the Old Kingdom. Many temples were built for her, with her most famous temple located in Dendera in Upper Egypt. People in Egypt and nearby lands like Nubia and Canaan also honored her, asking for her help in personal matters, especially women who wanted children.

Even when other goddesses like Mut and Isis became more important during the New Kingdom, Hathor remained widely loved by the people. She continued to be honored until ancient Egyptian religion faded away in the early centuries AD.

Origins

Pictures of cattle often appear in the artwork from Predynastic Egypt, which was before about 3100 BC. These pictures, along with images of women with arms raised like cow horns, might show goddesses linked to cattle. Cows are respected in many cultures, including ancient Egypt, because they care for their young and give people milk. The Gerzeh Palette, a stone palette from around 3500–3200 BC, shows a cow’s head with horns curved inward, surrounded by stars. This suggests the cow was also connected to the sky, like some goddesses who came later, such as Hathor, Mehet-Weret, and Nut.

Hathor is clearly mentioned and shown for the first time during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, around 2613–2494 BC, even though some items might refer to her from an earlier time, the Early Dynastic Period. When Hathor appears, her horns curve outward, not inward like in earlier art. Hathor became very important quickly. She took the place of an older crocodile god worshipped in Dendera in Upper Egypt and also took on the qualities of another goddess named Bat from nearby Hu. By the Middle Kingdom, around 2055–1650 BC, Hathor and Bat were seen as one goddess. As the sun god Ra became central to the beliefs about the pharaoh, Hathor became his mythological wife and so the divine mother of the pharaoh.

Roles

Hathor had many different roles and appeared in many ways. She was a important goddess in ancient Egyptian religion, taking on many different forms. These forms showed the many traits that the Egyptians linked with goddesses.

Sky goddess

Banquet scene from the tomb chapel of Nebamun, 14th century BC. Its imagery of music and dancing alludes to Hathor.

Hathor was called the "mistress of the sky" and "mistress of the stars". People thought she lived in the sky with the sun god Ra and other sun gods. The sky was seen as a body of water, and Hathor was often shown as a cow. She was believed to help give birth to the sun god each morning.

Solar goddess

Hathor was a goddess of the sun, linked with gods like Horus and Ra. She was called the "Golden One" because of the sun's brightness. She was one of several goddesses who helped Ra, acting like his feminine side. Hathor could be Ra's mother, wife, or daughter, showing the sun's daily cycle.

Hathor as a cow suckling Hatshepsut, a female pharaoh, at Hatshepsut's temple at Deir el-Bahari (15th century BC).

Music, dance, and joy

Egyptian religion celebrated fun things like music, dance, and festivals. Hathor was linked with these joys. She was called the "mistress of music, dance, garlands, and drunkenness". People played instruments like tambourines and harps to honor her. These celebrations helped keep her happy.

Motherhood and queenship

Statue of Goddess Hathor at the British Museum, London, UK.

Hathor was seen as the mother of many gods, including Horus. She was both the mother and wife of the pharaoh, making her the divine version of human queens. Her motherhood gave her a healing role, as she was said to help Horus after he was hurt.

Fate

Hathor was also linked with fate, especially when she appeared as the Seven Hathors. In stories, the Hathors would appear at the birth of important people and tell what would happen to them. Even though fate seemed fixed, the stories showed that help from the gods could sometimes change things.

Hathor, in bovine form, emerges from a hill representing the Theban necropolis, in a copy of the Book of the Dead from the 13th century BC

Foreign lands and goods

Hathor was connected with trade and faraway lands. Her role as a sky goddess linked her with stars and navigation. She was believed to protect ships. Her stories also involved lands like Nubia and Libya, where she was sometimes worshipped.

Afterlife

Hathor was important in beliefs about life after death. She helped people’s spirits enter the afterlife and was linked with tombs. In pictures, she was often shown welcoming people into a happy afterlife. Her role in rebirth was important, as she helped people come back to life like the sun god each day.

Iconography

Hathor was often shown as a cow with the sun disk between her horns, especially when she was pictured caring for the king. She could also look like a woman with a cow's head. Most often, she was a woman wearing a special headdress with horns and the sun disk, sometimes dressed in red or turquoise clothes. In some pictures, she wore a crown called the vulture headdress, which made her look like queens from ancient times.

Hathor could also be shown as other animals. When she looked like a cobra snake, it showed her strong and protective side. As a lioness, she had a similar meaning. A house cat was another symbol of Hathor, showing a gentler side. Sometimes she was shown as a tree with her upper body coming out of the trunk.

Hathor often carried special items. She might hold a tall plant called papyrus or a powerful staff called a was staff. She also carried a shaking instrument called a sistrum or a beaded necklace called a menat. Mirrors were important to her because they were made of shiny metals and stood for the sun and beauty. Some mirror handles were shaped like Hathor's face.

Hathor was sometimes shown as a human face with cow ears, looking straight forward instead of in profile like most Egyptian art. This face appeared on the tops of columns in temples. These columns often had four faces, showing different sides of the goddess or her watchful nature.

Worship

More temples were built for Hathor than for any other Egyptian goddess. She was very important to kings and queens, especially during the Old and Middle Kingdoms. Queens often linked themselves to Hathor to show their power and importance.

Copy of a statue of Hathor (center) with a goddess personifying the Fifteenth Nome of Upper Egypt (left) and the Fourth Dynasty king Menkaure (right); 26th century BC

Hathor was also honored in many festivals. One famous festival was the Festival of Drunkenness, where people celebrated with music, dancing, and drinking to honor life and joy. Another was the Beautiful Festival of the Valley, where people visited the tombs of their loved ones to celebrate together.

Hathor was also important outside of Egypt. In places like Nubia and Byblos, people worshipped her and built temples in her honor. Egyptians also prayed to Hathor in their homes for help with things like having healthy babies and solving personal problems.