Hundred Years' War

The Hundred Years' War was a long and important conflict between the kingdoms of England and France that lasted from 1337 to 1453, which is about 116 years. It began because of disagreements over land and a claim to the French throne by Edward III of England. Over time, the war grew to include many other places in Western Europe and involved more than just kings fighting—it affected trade, politics, and the way wars were fought.

During this war, leaders from two different royal families fought to rule France, which was the richest and most crowded country in Western Europe at the time. The war led to big changes in how battles were fought, including the use of new weapons and professional soldiers. It also helped people in England and France feel more proud of their countries.

Historians later called this long struggle the "Hundred Years' War," and they sometimes include other related fights in Spain and Belgium as part of it. The war happened in three main parts, with breaks in between. At first, the English did well, but in the end, the French, led by the House of Valois, kept control of France. Even after the war, English kings continued to call themselves rulers of France until the year 1802, although they did not actually control the country.

Overview

The Hundred Years' War was a long conflict between the kingdoms of England and France that lasted from 1337 to 1453. It began because of old arguments over land and a disagreement about who should be the king of France.

The war had many battles and changes in power. Both countries faced big problems, like a terrible disease called the Black Death that killed many people. The war ended with France winning most of the land, and it changed how wars were fought, with new weapons and professional soldiers instead of just nobles fighting.

Causes and prelude

Dynastic turmoil in France: 1316–1328

The question of who could become the next king of France arose after Louis X died in 1316. He left behind a young daughter, Joan II of Navarre, and a son, John I of France, who lived only five days. However, there were questions about Joan's parentage, as her mother, Margaret of Burgundy, was accused of wrongdoing. Because of this, Philip, Count of Poitiers, brother of Louis X, claimed the throne, arguing that women should not rule. He succeeded as Philip V. When he died in 1322, leaving only daughters, the throne passed to his brother, Charles IV.

Charles IV died in 1328, leaving his young daughter and pregnant wife, Joan of Évreux. He said that if the unborn child were male, he would become king. If not, the nobles would choose his successor. Joan gave birth to a girl, Blanche of France. With Charles IV’s death, the main male line of the House of Capet ended.

The closest male relative was Edward III of England, the nephew of Charles IV. However, many French nobles did not want an Englishman to rule, especially because Edward’s mother, Isabella, and her lover, Roger Mortimer, were suspected of harming the previous English king, Edward II. The French decided that males inheriting through their mother should not be considered. Therefore, Philip, Count of Valois, became king as Philip VI in 1328. In 1340, the Avignon papacy confirmed that, under Salic law, inheritance through mothers was not allowed.

Edward III eventually recognized Philip VI and paid respect for the lands of Aquitaine and Gascony in 1329, but he kept the right to reclaim certain territories.

Dispute over Guyenne: a problem of sovereignty

Tensions between France and England began with the 1066 Norman Conquest of England, when the English throne was taken by the Duke of Normandy, who owed loyalty to the King of France. This meant English kings, who also owned lands in France, could use England’s power in their French territories, threatening French royal authority.

The Angevin kings of England, starting with Henry II in 1154, ruled over many French lands, more than the kings of France. Though they owed loyalty to the French king, they had autonomy. However, Philip II of France took back many of these lands from King John of England by 1204. After several conflicts, by the time of Edward III, English holdings in France were limited mainly to Gascony around Bordeaux.

The main issue was Guyenne (also called Aquitaine), which Edward III held as a vassal of France. This meant decisions in Guyenne could be appealed to the French king, and the French king could overturn English rulings there. This power imbalance was a major source of conflict.

During the War of Saint-Sardos in 1324, Charles of Valois, father of Philip VI, took Aquitaine for France after local unrest believed to be stirred up by Edward II of England. Charles IV agreed to return it in 1325, but only after Edward II sent his son, the future Edward III, to show loyalty.

Gascony under the King of England

In the 11th century, Gascony in southwest France became part of Aquitaine after Henry II married Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152. By Edward III’s reign in 1327, the only remaining English-held land was the Duchy of Gascony.

For the first ten years of Edward III’s rule, Gascony was a major point of tension. The English felt they should not owe loyalty to France, but the French disagreed. In 1329, the 17-year-old Edward III showed loyalty to Philip VI, though he protested by keeping his crown and sword on during the ceremony. Even after this, France kept pressuring England over Gascony.

Edward had an advisor, Robert III of Artois, an exile from the French court who encouraged Edward to reclaim France and provided information about the French court.

Franco-Scot alliance

France and the Kingdom of Scotland were allies because English kings often tried to control Scotland. In 1295, France and Scotland signed a treaty, the Auld Alliance, promising to help each other if attacked. Charles IV renewed this treaty in 1326.

Philip VI prepared a large navy for a crusade to the Holy Land but redirected it to threaten England in 1336. Edward planned to send one army to deal with the Scots and another to Gascony while negotiating with France.

History

Beginning of the war: 1337–1360

In 1337, King Philip of France refused to meet with a group from England, leading to a call for war across France. Edward III of England claimed the French throne through his mother, Isabella, and formally took the title "King of France" in 1340. Edward tried to build alliances, especially with Flanders, which depended on England for wool for its textiles.

Edward’s fleet defeated the French at the Battle of Sluys in 1340, giving England control of the English Channel. A dispute over who would inherit the Duchy of Brittany led to more fighting. The English won the Battle of Crécy in 1346, and later captured the port city of Calais, which became a key English base in France.

Battle of Poitiers

In 1356, the French king was captured by the English at the Battle of Poitiers, leading to chaos in France. Edward invaded France again in 1360, hoping to take the throne, but faced strong defenses. A sudden hailstorm hurt his army, and he was forced to make peace, giving up some land in return for ending the war.

First peace: 1360–1369

The French king was held in England for several years. When he died, his son Charles V became king. Fighting continued as factions in France and England disagreed about the peace terms.

French ascendancy under Charles V: 1369–1389

Charles V worked to rebuild France’s strength. He supported a rival in Spain, which led to more fighting. English efforts in France faced difficulties, and by 1380, the English held only a few ports.

Second peace: 1389–1415

The war slowed down, and both sides faced internal problems. In England, King Richard II faced rebellions, and in France, a new king faced challenges from his family members.

Resumption of the war under Henry V: 1415–1429

In 1415, King Henry V of England attacked France. He won a major victory at the Battle of Agincourt and later took control of Normandy. In 1420, he signed a treaty to become heir to the French throne. However, his early death in 1422 left England with a young king.

French victory: 1429–1453

In 1429, a woman named Joan of Arc helped turn the war in France’s favor. The French recaptured many cities and won important battles. By 1453, the French had taken most of the land the English held, ending the long conflict.

Significance

Historical significance

The French victory ended a long period of instability that began with the Norman Conquest in 1066. This event made William the Conqueror both a vassal to and an equal of the king of France. After the war, England lost most of its lands in Europe, keeping only Calais until 1558. The war ended England's hope of a united monarchy with France and led to England rejecting French culture and language. English became the official language in 1362, and French was no longer taught from 1385.

The war helped both France and England become more unified nations. Even though France suffered greatly, the war helped it change from a feudal system to a more centralized state. In England, problems from the war contributed to political conflicts known as the Wars of the Roses from 1455 to 1487.

Military significance

France's success was partly due to its professional standing army, which Charles VII reestablished in 1445. This army gave France an advantage because its soldiers were paid full-time and were more disciplined than temporary troops. The war also brought big changes in military tactics and technology. By the end of the war, battles were won using new methods, such as field artillery, as seen in the Battle of Castillon. The heavy cavalry, once the most powerful part of an army, had to adapt to new tactics developed to counter them. The English used lightly armored troops called hobelars, who fought on foot after riding to the battlefield.

Prominent figures

France

England

Burgundy