Interwar period

The interwar period lasted from November 11, 1918, to September 1, 1939. It began when World War I ended and finished when World War II started. Though it was only about 20 years long, this time brought many big changes around the world.

During the Roaring Twenties, new inventions like automobiles, electric lights, and radios changed everyday life. People, especially in the middle class, enjoyed new freedoms and wealth. But this prosperity ended with the Great Depression, a severe worldwide economic crash that hurt many countries.

Politically, this period saw the rise of new governments. Communism began in Russia after the October Revolution, and later, strong leaders called fascists came to power in places like Germany and Italy. Many countries faced challenges as people in colonies demanded independence, and old empires broke apart. New nations such as the Soviet Union, Estonia, Finland, and Latvia were formed.

The interwar years also saw fast advances in military technology. New ideas about using tanks, airplanes, and ships changed how wars were fought. These changes helped shape the way wars were planned and fought in World War II and beyond.

Turmoil in Europe

Main article: Aftermath of World War I

Further information: European interwar economy

After the end of World War I in November 1918, Europe faced many challenges. The Russian Civil War was still happening, and parts of Eastern Europe were trying to heal from the damage of the war. Big empires like Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire had fallen apart, leading to the creation of new countries such as Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

During this time, the United States became a major force in world finance. When Germany could not pay war reparations to Britain and France, American leaders created the Dawes Plan, and American money helped Germany recover. This support helped bring about a time of growth and prosperity known as the Roaring Twenties.

International relations

Main article: International relations (1919–1939)

The years between World War I and World War II were busy with many changes in how countries worked together. Leaders tried to solve problems left over from the war, like money that Germany owed and where borders should be. New countries were forming, and many were unsure how to get along with older nations. There was a lot of talk about making the world safer by reducing weapons, but not all countries agreed.

The world faced big challenges, such as the Great Depression, which made life harder for many people and hurt trade between countries. Some leaders, like those in Germany, Italy, and Japan, became aggressive and wanted more land. There were also fights and disagreements, like between Japan and China, and Italy moving into parts of Africa. All of these tensions made it harder to keep peace and led to more problems later on.

Roaring Twenties

Main articles: 1920s, Roaring Twenties, Golden Twenties, and Années folles

The Roaring Twenties brought exciting new ways of living and culture, helped by good economies. Big cities like New York City, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, and London showed these changes clearly. Music like jazz became popular, and a new style called Art Deco was everywhere. Women started wearing shorter clothes and cutting their hair, and these women were called flappers.

Many countries let women vote during this time, including Canada and the United States. Most places grew richer, and families could buy new things like radios and cars. Life changed a lot, with more focus on famous people and fun places to visit.

Great Depression

Main article: Great Depression

The Great Depression was a very serious and long-lasting economic problem that began after 1929. It started in the United States when the stock market crashed on a day called Black Tuesday. This event made the problem spread all around the world. During this time, many people lost their jobs, and it was very hard for everyone. In the United States, about a quarter of the workers had no jobs, and in some other countries, even more people were out of work. Prices for things like food and goods dropped a lot, and it was difficult for many cities and farms to survive.

The Great Depression caused big changes in many countries. In Germany, it led to serious problems and the rise of a strict and powerful government. In Japan, it made the country more aggressive, especially toward China. Many people lost trust in their governments and democratic systems because of the hard times, and some countries turned to strong leaders and strict rules instead.

The rise of fascism

Main articles: Fascism and European interwar dictatorships

When the economy was struggling, many people in Europe and Latin America lost faith in their democratic governments. As a result, powerful and strict leaders took control in several countries, including Italy, Germany, Japan, and others. These leaders believed in strong, aggressive actions and often ignored the rights and needs of their people. They thought only their ideas were correct and used fear and force to stay in power. This period was very difficult for many people and led to serious problems around the world.

Empire of Japan

Main articles: Empire of Japan, Japanese colonial empire, List of territories occupied by Imperial Japan, and Statism in Shōwa Japan

Japan built its industries by copying the most advanced Western countries. It started with making clothes, building railways, and shipping goods, and later added electricity and machines. But Japan had a big problem: it lacked many important raw materials like copper and coal and needed to import most of its oil, aluminium, and iron.

During World War I, Japan joined the Allies and gained some small islands from Germany. However, Japan’s attempts to control more of China were blocked by other countries. By the 1930s, Japan’s government changed dramatically. Democracy weakened, and the military took control. Japan also moved away from working with other nations and joined a group of powerful countries led by Germany and Italy.

Japan seizes Manchuria

Main article: Japanese invasion of Manchuria

In 1931, Japanese soldiers took over Manchuria in China and set up a new government there. Other countries said this was wrong, and Japan left an international group of nations called the League of Nations.

Towards the conquest of China

Main article: Second Sino-Japanese War

Fighting between Japan and China grew into a big war in 1937. Japan took many cities, but faced strong resistance. The war continued for many years, with Japan controlling most major Chinese cities by 1939. Meanwhile, Japan also fought battles against the Soviet Union but eventually signed a peace agreement in 1941.

Spain

Main articles: Second Spanish Republic and Francoist Spain

Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)

Main article: Spanish Civil War

Spain had trouble with its government for many years, and from 1936 to 1939, it faced a very serious fight called the Spanish Civil War. During this time, people who supported the old ways and the church fought against the new government. Italy and Germany helped the group that wanted to change things back, while the government got help from the Soviet Union and Mexico. Many countries, like Britain, France, and the United States, chose not to help either side because they were worried the fight might spread to other places.

The war had many small battles and tough times for both sides. In the end, the group led by General Franco won in 1939. Even though the war didn’t grow into a bigger fight across Europe, it showed that many people around the world were worried about another big war coming soon.

Great Britain and British Empire

Main articles: Interwar Britain and War Plan Red

The world changed a lot after World War I, especially with the United States and Japan becoming strong sea powers. This made Britain rethink its policies. Britain decided not to keep its old alliance with Japan and instead signed a treaty in 1922 to have equal naval power with the United States.

India had helped Britain during World War I and hoped for more self-rule in return, but Britain did not give it. Tensions grew, especially in the Punjab region, leading to a sad event in 1919. Many people in India began to push for independence, led by Mohandas Gandhi. In Egypt, Britain allowed the country to become independent in 1922, but still had a strong influence on its leaders. Iraq also became independent in 1932.

In Palestine, Britain had to balance the needs of Arab people and Jewish settlers. This caused conflicts, especially when many Jewish people wanted to move there. As World War II approached, Britain decided to support the Arab people more, which upset many Jewish settlers.

The Dominions like Canada, Australia, and South Africa gained more control over their own policies during this time. By 1931, they were officially allowed to make their own foreign policies. Ireland fully became independent from Britain in 1937.

French Empire

Main articles: Interwar France and French colonial empire

In 1938, the French Empire had a population of over 150 million people. Outside of France itself, about 102.8 million people lived across 13.5 million square kilometers. Most people lived in Africa (64.7 million) and Asia (31.2 million). Smaller groups lived in the French West Indies and islands in the South Pacific.

The largest areas of the empire were French Indochina with 26.8 million people, French Algeria with 6.6 million, the French protectorate in Morocco with 5.4 million, and French West Africa with 35.2 million people.

Revolt in North Africa against Spain and France

Main article: Rif War

A leader named Abd el-Krim organized resistance against Spanish and French control in Morocco. In 1921, Spanish forces suffered heavy losses in a battle. El-Krim created an independent area called the Rif Republic, but it was not recognized by other countries. France and Spain worked together to end the resistance. They sent many soldiers, and el-Krim finally agreed to stop fighting in 1926. He was sent far away until 1947. After this, Morocco was under control again.

Germany

Main article: History of Germany

Weimar Republic

Main article: Weimar Republic

After World War I, Germany faced tough new rules set by other countries. These rules, from the Treaty of Versailles, made many Germans very upset. Germany lost some land, including colonies far away and areas close to home like Alsace–Lorraine. The country could not have a strong army, navy, or air force, and had to pay a lot of money to other nations, called reparations.

When Germany could not pay these payments, French and Belgian soldiers entered a key industrial area called the Ruhr in 1923. The German government told people there to stop working and not help the soldiers, which caused big problems with money and led to hyperinflation. This meant that savings lost their value quickly. During this time, different groups like Nazis, Nationalists, and Communists often fought in the streets.

Germany was the first country to make friends with the new Soviet Union. In 1925, Germany signed the Treaty of Locarno with France, Belgium, Britain, and Italy, which helped Germany join the League of Nations in 1926.

Nazi era, 1933–1939

Main articles: Nazi Germany and Causes of World War II

Further information: German rearmament

In January 1933, Adolf Hitler became leader of Germany. He wanted Germany to be very strong and powerful in Europe. Hitler’s way of getting what he wanted was to make demands and threaten war if they were not met. Germany left the League of Nations, ignored the Versailles Treaty, and started building up its military again.

Germany took back areas like the Territory of the Saar Basin after a vote. Then, Hitler's Germany remilitarised the Rhineland, made an alliance with Italy called the Pact of Steel, and helped a country called Spain during its civil war. In 1938, Germany seized Austria, and later took over parts of Czechoslovakia after an agreement with Britain and France called the Munich Agreement. In 1939, Germany made a deal with the Soviet Union and then invaded Poland, which led to the start of World War II.

After forming a strong alliance with Italy known as the "Rome-Berlin Axis" and making a pact with Japan, Hitler moved forward with his plans. In 1938, German troops entered Austria, where many people welcomed him. Soon after, Austria officially joined Germany. Next, Hitler turned his attention to Czechoslovakia, where many people of German background lived.

At the Munich Conference in 1938, leaders agreed that Czechoslovakia should give some land to Germany. But just a few months later, in 1939, Hitler took the rest of Czechoslovakia. He also took a small area called Memel from Lithuania. This showed that the efforts to keep peace with Hitler did not work.

Italy

Main article: Fascist Italy

Further information: Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Italian invasion of Albania, and History of Greece (1924–1941)

In 1922, the leader of the Italian Fascist movement, Benito Mussolini, became Prime Minister of Italy after the March on Rome. He solved disputes over islands called the Dodecanese by making agreements in 1923, which let Italy control places like Libya and the Dodecanese Islands.

Mussolini wanted Italy to grow stronger and control more land, especially around the Mediterranean Sea. He believed Italy needed to reach the Atlantic and Indian Oceans to be truly independent. He talked about Italy being trapped and wanted to break free from other countries nearby.

Italy also wanted control over parts of the Balkans, like Albania, Slovenia, and Croatia. In 1935, Italy went to war with Ethiopia and took it over. Later, in 1939, Italy invaded and took control of Albania, making it part of Italy’s kingdom.

Soviet Union

After World War I, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic declared a war on Poland in 1919, which lasted until 1921 and ended with Poland winning.

In 1922, the Soviet Union was formed and led by Vladimir Lenin. When Lenin passed away in 1924, Joseph Stalin took control. Stalin began a plan called the Five Year Plan, which involved taking property from private citizens. Many people were moved to special settlements during this time.

In the early 1930s, a large famine occurred in Ukraine, known as the Holodomor. The exact number of people who suffered is still unknown.

Regional patterns

Balkans

The Great Depression caused trouble for the Kingdom of Romania. The early 1930s saw social unrest, high unemployment, and strikes. By the mid-1930s, Romania's economy improved, but most people still worked in agriculture. France was an important influence early on, but Germany became more powerful later.

In the Albanian Kingdom, leader Zog I made changes to laws and tried to reform land use, but these efforts did not succeed well. Albania became more dependent on Italy, which had a strong influence over the country.

China

Main articles: Republic of China (1912–1949), Warlord Era, Nanjing decade, and Chinese Civil War

Latin America

The United States had military forces in several Latin American countries, such as Cuba, Panama, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua. The Great Depression made it hard for these countries because they sold fewer raw materials. Leaders in Latin America decided to build their own industries to avoid depending on other countries. The Roosevelt administration supported this with a Good Neighbor policy. For example, Mexico's president Lázaro Cárdenas took control of oil companies and shared land with people. The Platt Amendment was ended, allowing Cuba to manage its own politics. During this time, the United States was worried about German influence in Latin America, especially in the southern parts where there were many German communities. Intellectuals in Latin America also debated ideas about local culture and identity.

Sports

Sports grew very popular during this time, with many excited fans filling large stadiums. The International Olympic Committee worked hard to promote the spirit of the Olympics and get more people involved. After games held in Rio de Janeiro in 1922, the IOC helped create groups in different countries to get ready for future Olympic events. However, in Brazil, disagreements between groups slowed things down as they argued over who should manage international sport. The 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris and the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam saw many more athletes from Latin America taking part.

Soccer, brought to Brazil by engineers from England and Scotland in the late 1800s, became a worldwide favorite. Organizations like the International Committee of the YMCA of North America and the Playground Association of America helped train coaches. After 1912, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) led the way in making soccer a global sport. They worked with groups from many countries, created rules, and started big tournaments like the World Cup.