Islam in India

Islam is the second-largest religion in India, with about 172 million people, or 14.2% of the country's population, identifying as Muslim. This makes India home to the third-largest number of Muslims in the world. Most of these Muslims are Sunni, with Shia making up about 15% of the Muslim community.

Islam first spread in southern India through trade routes along the Arab coast, especially in places like Gujarat and the Malabar Coast. It later reached northern India in the 7th century when Arab invaders came to Sindh. Over time, Islam became an important part of India’s religious and cultural history. Some of the earliest mosques in India, like the Barwada Mosque in Ghogha, the Cheraman Juma Mosque in Methala, Kerala, and the Palaiya Jumma Palli in Kilakarai, Tamil Nadu, were built by Arab traders. According to stories, the first mosque in India was built in Kodungallur in Kerala around the time of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

History

Origins

Most Muslims in India belong to South Asian ethnic groups. Some have small amounts of ancestry from the Middle East and Central Asia. Social groups among Muslims developed based on a concept called Kafa'a. The Ashrafs are thought to have higher status because of their Arab ancestry, while Ajlafs are believed to be descendants of converts from Hinduism and have lower status.

This social structure contrasts with Islamic teachings, which emphasize equality among all believers. Islamic doctrine states that all Muslims are part of a single community, and the Quran and Hadith stress unity and brotherhood. This principle is highlighted in the Farewell Sermon of Muhammad, which teaches that no one has superiority over another except through piety and good actions. Despite these teachings, some Islamic scholars argue that caste-like hierarchies are cultural practices that go against the core values of Islam. Others believe marrying within one's own group is preferable, a practice still common in India.

Early history of Islam in India

Trade between Arabia and the Indian subcontinent existed since ancient times. Even before Islam, Arab traders visited the coasts of Konkan, Gujarat, and Malabar. After Islam spread, Arab traders became the first Muslims to contact India. Historians note that Muslim travelers arrived on the Indian coast as early as 630 CE. The first Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the late 7th century CE.

Islam is believed to have reached the Lakshadweep islands in 661 CE through Ubaidullah. Some early mosques, like the Masjid Zeenath Baksh in Mangalore, are thought to be among the oldest in the Indian subcontinent. According to tradition, the first mosque in India was built in 624 CE in Kodungallur, Kerala, under the rule of the Cheraman Perumals. Other early mosques were built along the coast by missionaries like Malik Dinar.

Arab–Indian interactions

Arabs and Muslims interacted with Indians from the early days of Islam. Arab traders brought goods like dates to India and shared their faith. Many Arab traders married Indian women and settled in India, leading to a unique Indian-Arabian Muslim community. By the early 9th century, Muslim missionaries had converted a local king in Malabar to Islam.

Political history of Islam in India

Muslim invasions of the Indian subcontinent began in the late 7th century. The Umayyad Caliphate reached Sindh but was later contained. In the 10th century, the Ghaznavids, led by Mahmud of Ghazni, invaded and established control in parts of North India. The Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 and ruled much of North India, integrating Islamic and Indian cultures. The Mughal Empire, beginning in the early 16th century, brought further cultural and administrative changes. The empire was known for its economic strength and contributions to art, literature, and architecture.

Role in the Indian independence movement

Many Muslims played important roles in India’s struggle for independence from British rule. Figures like Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan worked for freedom. Others, such as Ashfaqulla Khan and Vakkom Abdul Khader, were involved in revolutionary activities against British rule.

Partition of India

The partition of British India in 1947 created the two nations of India and Pakistan. This division led to large movements of people and significant challenges for both new countries. The partition was marked by difficulties and tensions that affected relations between India and Pakistan.

21st century

In March 2025, India’s Parliament passed a bill to change how Muslim charitable properties, known as waqf properties, are managed. The government said the changes would improve transparency, but many Muslims and opposition groups argued the bill unfairly treated their community and violated their rights. The bill has faced legal challenges in India’s Supreme Court.

Demographics

Main article: Islam by country § Countries

India is home to about 204 million Muslims, making it the world's third-largest Muslim population and the largest where Muslims are a minority group. Muslims make up around 10.9% of all people in the world who follow Islam.

In some areas like Lakshadweep and Jammu and Kashmir, Muslims are the majority. Many Muslims live in states such as Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Bihar. Other states with notable Muslim communities include Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Delhi, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Tripura, and Uttarakhand.

After India became independent in 1947 and Pakistan was created, many Muslims moved to Pakistan. This caused the Muslim population in India to drop from about 42.4 million in 1941 to around 35.4 million in 1951. Many Muslims stayed in India because leaders promised they would be treated fairly.

India is also home to some refugees from places like Bangladesh and Myanmar. These refugees often face challenges and are sometimes detained due to safety concerns.

Muslims in India tend to have more children compared to followers of other religions. This has caused the Muslim share of the population to grow from about 9.8% in 1951 to around 14.2% in 2011. However, the growth rate has been slowing down and is expected to match the national average. Some reasons for the higher birth rates include lower income levels, less education, and cultural traditions. Studies show that Muslim families often prefer to have more children and may marry at a younger age than Hindu families.

Denominations

There are two main groups among Muslims in India: Sunni and Shia. Most Muslims in India, over 85%, are Sunni. The Shia make up about 15% of Muslim people in India.

Sufi Muslims, who focus on spiritual and mystical aspects of the faith, also played an important role in spreading Islam in India. Their teachings often matched ideas in Indian traditions, helping many people accept Islam.

Society and culture

The religious leaders in each state are called Muftis, and they work under the guidance of the Grand Mufti of India, who is the main religious leader for Muslims in India. This system has been in place since the time of the Mughal Empire.

India is home to many well-known Muslim schools and universities. These institutions have a long history of teaching and learning.

Islamic buildings in India, such as mosques and tombs, show a unique style that mixes Indian and Islamic designs. These structures often include domes, arches, and beautiful decorations. One famous example is the Taj Mahal in Agra, which is a large tomb built by a king in memory of his wife.

There are over 300,000 mosques in India, more than in any other country. Mosques are places where Muslims gather for prayer and often have a courtyard, a dome, and a tower called a minaret. The most important mosques for weekly prayers are called Jama Masjids.

Law, politics, and government

Certain personal matters for Muslims such as marriage, inheritance and properties are guided by special rules created during British rule. These rules are part of India's laws today. The highest court in India has decided that for Muslims, these special rules are important and come before general Indian laws in these matters.

Muslims in India follow laws set in "The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937." This guides them in areas like marriage, divorce, and wills. Most Muslims follow Sunni traditions, while Shia Muslims have their own practices in some areas.

India's constitution gives equal rights to all citizens, no matter their religion. There have been discussions about creating one set of rules for everyone, but many Muslims feel this would affect their traditions. Groups like the All India Muslim Personal Law Board work to protect these special rules.

India has had Muslim leaders in important positions. The country has had three Muslim presidents and many Muslim leaders in state governments. Muslims have also served as chief justices and in other high offices.

The government used to help with travel costs for Muslims going on a religious journey, but this support ended in 2018 after a court decision. Some Muslim leaders felt this was the right thing to do because they believed followers should use their own resources for such journeys.

Conflict and controversy

Conversion controversy

See also: Medieval India, Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, and Religious violence in India

There is a lot of discussion about how people in India became followers of Islam. Some ideas include:

• Many Muslims in India are thought to be descendants of people who came from places like the Iranian Plateau or from Arab areas. But studies of DNA suggest this might not be the whole story.
• Some people chose to become Muslims to keep their jobs or to be protected by rulers. Others changed to fit in better with their community or for social benefits.
• Many people turned to Islam for reasons that were not about religion, like gaining respect or avoiding taxes.
• Some became Muslims because of famous religious teachers called Sufi saints, and they truly believed in Islam.
• Many Buddhists and lower-caste Hindus turned to Islam to escape unfair treatment in their own religion.
• Some people became Muslims under pressure but later truly believed in the religion.
• Over time, many people slowly adopted Islam as they mixed with Muslim communities.

These different views show how complex history can be, and they explain why people still talk and sometimes argue about this today.

Relations with non-Muslim communities

Muslim–Hindu conflict

See also: Persecution of Muslims, Persecution of Hindus § During Islamic rule of the Indian sub-continent, Religious violence in India, and Violence against Muslims in India

Before 1947

There has long been tension between Hindus and Muslims in India, going back many years. Sometimes, temples were destroyed, and there were fights between groups. Even so, many Hindus still respect and visit the places where Muslim holy people are buried.

From 1947 to 1998

After India became independent in 1947, there were sad and violent events between Hindus and Muslims. Some big fights happened in different places like Gujarat, Bhiwandi, Nellie, and Bhagalpur. These fights were often linked to strong feelings about what it means to be Hindu or Muslim.

One big event was when a very important building called the Babri Mosque was torn down in 1992. This led to more fighting between Hindus and Muslims all over India.

Kashmir (1990s)

In the 1990s, many Hindu people living in Kashmir had to leave because of unsafe conditions. They were told to leave, change their religion, or face danger. Many moved to camps in another part of India called Jammu.

Gujarat (2002)

In 2002, there were very sad riots in Gujarat. Many people lost their lives, and most of them were Muslim. These riots started after a train caught fire with Hindu people inside, and there were claims that the fire was started on purpose.

Delhi (2020)

In 2020, there were riots in Delhi linked to protests about a law that many people felt treated Muslims unfairly.

Muslim–Sikh conflict

Main article: Islam and Sikhism

See also: Chhota Ghallughara

The religion of Sikhism began in Punjab during a time when Muslim rulers controlled much of India. There were sad times when leaders of the Sikhs were treated badly or hurt by Muslim rulers. Over time, Sikhs became strong and formed their own army. There were fights and hard times, but also moments of peace.

During the time when India was being split into two countries in 1947, many people had to move from one side to the other. This caused a lot of sad events and many people lost their lives.

Indian Muslim News Agencies

Several organizations and platforms share news and information about the Muslim community in India. The Milli Gazette is a well-known English newspaper that reports on issues important to Muslims, offering news and views from an Islamic perspective. All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB) represents Muslim interests and also shares statements and reports on matters affecting the community.

Jaamiat-e-Ulama-i-Hind (Jamiat Ulama-e-Hind) is one of India’s oldest and most respected Muslim groups, providing news and information on social, educational, and religious topics. Muslim Mirror is a digital platform that covers news, opinions, and analysis related to Muslims in India and around the world. The India Islamic Cultural Centre (IICC) in New Delhi shares materials on cultural, educational, and social concerns of the Muslim community. Naus Network is a YouTube channel that discusses issues facing Muslims and other minorities.

Prominent Muslims in India

India has many famous Muslims who have achieved great things in many areas of life. Some have served as important leaders, like presidents and judges. Others have won the country's highest awards for their work.

Many Muslims are well-known in entertainment, like actors, directors, and musicians. They have brought joy to many people through films, music, and art.

In sports, several Muslim athletes have made their mark, especially in cricket, where many have played for the national team. There are also Muslim businessmen who have built large and successful companies.

Even in science and the military, Muslims have made important contributions. Some have led big research projects, while others have served bravely in the armed forces.

Overall, Muslims in India have played many important roles in shaping the country's culture, economy, and society.