Jain literature

Jain literature refers to the writings of the Jain religion. It is a very old and large collection of books that were first shared by speaking it aloud. The oldest books that we still have today are called the Jain Agamas. These are written in a language called Ardhamagadhi, which is a type of middle Indo-Aryan language known as Prakrit.

Jain monks wrote many explanations and comments about these old books. Later, people also wrote new books in other languages such as Sanskrit and Maharashtri Prakrit.

Jain books are mainly split between two groups within Jainism, called the Digambara and Śvētāmbara orders. These two groups do not always agree on which books should be considered the most important.

In more recent times, Jain writers have also created books in many other languages, including Marathi, Tamil, Rajasthani, Dhundari, Marwari, Hindi, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, and even English.

Origins: The Oral Tradition (Śrutajñāna)

Jain tradition teaches that the messages that form their holy books have always existed. It is said that in each big cycle of time, twenty-four special teachers called tīrthaṅkaras share these messages. The first teacher of our time, Ṛṣabhanātha, began sharing these teachings millions of years ago.

Jains think these teachers speak from a special divine place called the samavasaraṇa. Many people, including gods and learners, can hear these messages at the same time. This sharing of messages is called śrutajñāna, meaning “heard knowledge.” Importantly, these messages were not written down at first; they were shared by speaking.

The main learners of each teacher, known as Gaṇadharas, could perfectly remember these messages. They helped turn the heard messages into written books called suttas. These books were split into fourteen parts called Pūrvas and eleven parts called Aṅgas. Together, they are known as the “twelve-limbed basket.”

For many years, these important books were passed down by speaking from one teacher to another, using strong memory and chanting. This way of sharing by speaking was a key part of the early Jain writing tradition.

Datings

Scholars have different ideas about when the Jain Agamas were first written. Some think they started in the 6th century BCE, while others, like Ian Whicher and David Carpenter, believe the earliest parts were written around the 4th or 3rd century BCE. Johannes Bronkhorst says it is very hard to know the exact age of the Jain Agamas.

Based on language, some texts like the Ācārāṅga Sūtra, the Sūtrakṛtāṅga Sūtra, and the Uttarādhyayana Sūtra are thought to be among the oldest. However, Bronkhorst notes that the Sūtrakṛtāṅga likely dates from the 2nd century BCE at the earliest, because it talks about a Buddhist idea that developed later.

The Great Schism and the Divergence of Canons

The Jain community gradually divided into two groups. The Śvetāmbaras believe this split happened in the 1st century CE, while the Digambaras think it was in the 2nd century BCE.

Śvetāmbaras gathered around 300 BCE in Pataliputra (now Patna) to remember and collect their important teachings called the eleven Aṅgas. However, the twelfth Aṅga, called the Dṛṣṭivāda, was incomplete because the monk who knew it was not there. Later, around 454 or 466 CE, Śvetāmbaras wrote down their remembered teachings during a meeting in Vallabhi, Gujarat. They see these written teachings as the true Agamas, even though some parts are missing.

Digambaras believe the original teachings were lost by the 2nd century CE. They think the last monk who knew any of the old teachings was Āchārya Bhutabali. Digambaras hold other books, like the Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama and Kasayapahuda, as important instead. This difference in what they believe are the true teachings is a big reason why the two groups separated.

Svetambara Canon (The Agamas)

The Śvētāmbara canons, called Siddhāntha, are made up of several important texts. These include twelve Angās (limbs) such as Āyāraṃga, which talks about monastic conduct, and Sūyagaḍa, which discusses different beliefs. There are also twelve Upāṅgas (auxiliary limbs) and six Chedasūtras that guide the behavior of monks and nuns.

There are also four Mūlasūtras that are studied by new monastics, like Dasaveyāliya-sutta, and two Cūlikasūtras that explore knowledge and analytical methods. Additionally, there are supplementary texts called Paiṇṇaya suttas, which vary in number and are not always considered as important as the main texts. Different groups of Śvētāmbara Jains may accept different numbers of these texts as part of their canon.

Digambara Canon (The Siddhanta)

The Digambara canon of scriptures includes two main texts, three commentaries on these texts, and four later groups of writings called Anuyogas, which have more than 20 texts in total.

Important writers like Virasena and Jinasena created commentaries to help explain these texts. The Anuyogas were written between the 2nd and 11th centuries and are split into four groups: stories, calculations, behavior, and substance. These works cover topics like stories from famous epics, the universe, proper behavior, and understanding the nature of the world and the self.

Post-Canonical literature

Jain literature includes many important books written after the main religious texts were completed. These books cover many subjects, such as philosophy, logic, and grammar.

One key book is Tattvarthasūtra by Umasvāti, which explains Jain beliefs. It is very important to Jains, similar to important books in other religions. Other later works include writings by Bhadrabahu and many writers who used the Sanskrit language.

Important writers and their works include:

• Jinabhadra, who wrote about Jain beliefs
• Mallavadin, who wrote about philosophy
• Haribhadra, who wrote about yoga and commented on religious texts
• Prabhacandra, who wrote about logic
• Abhaydevsuri, who wrote detailed commentaries on religious texts
• Hemachandra, who wrote about yoga and Hindu teachings, and also wrote shorter religious poems
• Vidyanandi, who wrote a commentary on a main Jain book
• Yaśovijaya, who wrote over 100 books on logic and philosophy

Jain writers also made big contributions to grammar and language studies. Books like Jainendra Vyākaraṇa and Siddha-Hema-Śabdānuśāsana by Hemachandra are important works. Jains helped develop grammar for many languages, including Tamil.

Jain stories often focus on important people in their religion. Books like Harivamshapurana and Vikramarjuna-Vijaya tell these stories.

Jain texts also discuss mathematics, including numbers, geometry, and equations, showing their interest in many areas of learning.

Languages

Jain literature was written in many languages, including Jain Prakrit, Sanskrit, Marathi, Tamil, Rajasthani, Dhundari, Marwari, Hindi, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Telugu, and more recently in English.

The oldest Jain texts are in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit and Jain Prakrit. Many important works are also written in Sanskrit. Jains have helped shape literature in India, especially in Kannada and Tamil.

Manuscript Heritage and Preservation

The Jain literary tradition has a large and ancient collection of manuscripts. For centuries, giving books as a gift, called shastra-dana or the "gift of knowledge," has been a way for people to show respect and earn merit.

Jain manuscript libraries, or jñāna bhaṇḍāras, are some of the oldest libraries in India. They were often kept in temple basements to protect them and were managed by community members or special monks. These libraries contain hundreds of thousands of documents, including some of the earliest-known palm-leaf manuscripts from the 11th century. Important collections can be found in Patan, Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, and Moodabidri in Karnataka.

Because these old manuscripts were written on materials like palm leaves and paper, they face damage from time, moisture, and insects. To save these important texts, modern efforts have been made to protect and digitize them. The Government of India has helped create a Centre for Jain Manuscriptology at Gujarat University to conserve, digitize, and study these manuscripts.

Influence on Indian literature

Parts of the Sangam literature in Tamil are thought to have been written by Jains. Important Tamil books such as the Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi and Nālaṭiyār were written by Jain authors. These books have been studied and loved by both Hindus and Jains for many years. Some believe the oldest Tamil book, Tolkāppiyam, may also have been written by a Jain.

The famous Tamil book Silappatikaram was written by a Jain named Ilango Adigal. It tells stories from history and describes different religions, including Jainism. Many important Tamil kings supported Jainism, even though its influence lessened over time.

Jain scholars also helped shape Kannada literature. Old Jain libraries in temples, especially in the Thar Desert, hold many precious books that have been carefully kept for centuries.