Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism is the idea that many different cultures can live and work together in the same place. It is a word used by sociologists, political thinkers, and everyday people to describe areas or countries where many ethnic and cultural groups exist side by side. This can happen in neighborhoods with people from various backgrounds or in whole countries where many traditions are present.

In sociology, multiculturalism can develop naturally through things like immigration or be created when different cultural areas come together, such as in French Canada and English Canada. On a larger scale, it happens because people move between countries, either legally or not.

In political science, multiculturalism is about how a country can manage and support many cultures living within its borders. Some people think of it like a salad bowl or a cultural mosaic, where each culture keeps its own identity, instead of a melting pot where everyone blends into one culture.

History

Prevalence of multiculturalism over time

According to migration researcher Hein de Haas, it is a myth that today's societies are more diverse than in the past. The idea that 21st century society is especially diverse comes from forgetting about the diversity in past times. Historical waves of people moving to new places have led to levels of diversity that were just as great.

Scholars such as Ibrahim Menek suggest that states with multicultural ideals have existed since ancient times. The Achaemenid Empire founded by Cyrus the Great followed a policy of including and accepting various cultures.

Europe has always had great diversity in terms of ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups, with more groups than the number of countries. Local and regional identities were strong, with each area and town having its own dialect, customs, and traditions. From the 16th century, larger nations were formed. This process grew after the French Revolution and became stronger in the 19th century.

The Habsburg monarchy, which lasted from 1282 to 1918, was different from the trend of forming nation-states in Europe. It included many languages, religions, and regional identities, resisting the push to make everyone the same. Issues such as social and cultural differences, speaking many languages, and having many cultural identities were already important to thinkers in this multi-ethnic empire.

Since the 19th century, societies in Europe and North America have become more similar in culture because of the growth of nation-states. Governments promoted national identities through education, conscription, and making one language the standard standardization of languages. In France, for example, promoting French led to the decline of regional languages such as Breton and Occitan. Likewise, in Western Europe, the use of many local dialects decreased. Also, strict religious differences in Western countries became softer because organized religion had less influence and secularization grew. This pattern happened in other parts of Europe and North America, where forming a nation went together with making cultures more alike.

In the 19th century, millions of people from many ethnic and religious backgrounds moved to the United States and Europe, looking for better jobs or to escape trouble. The U.S. was a melting pot of groups such as Irish, Italian, Chinese, German, and Jewish immigrants, who were often seen as threats to the national identity at first. By the early 1900s, 14.7% of the U.S. population were immigrants, about the same as at the start of the 21st century.

Nationalism sped up cultural similarity in the 20th century. For example, after World War I, much of the former ethnic diversity in the area of the former Habsburg monarchy disappeared. Under the influence of nationalist ideas, ethnic minorities were treated badly, forced to leave, or even hurt in most areas of the former Habsburg monarchy because of strong nationalism at the time. In many areas, these mixed groups no longer exist today. The mix of ethnicities from that time can only be seen in a few places, such as the former Habsburg port city of Trieste.

Globalization has further reduced cultural differences. The rise of a global youth culture in the 1920s, which grew fast from the 1950s on, made it easier for young people worldwide to share things like food, music, movies, books, and art. International travel and the rise of television and the internet helped create both national and international culture. The spread of English as a global language, Hollywood movies, and the spread of fast-food places like McDonald's are all signs of a world becoming more alike in culture. Even though cities often show more ethnic diversity, the differences between areas and countries have shrunk, which is often seen as a loss of cultural diversity.

Similar culture is happening worldwide in the 21st century, with the decline of minority languages a big sign of this trend. It has been estimated that every two weeks a language ceases to be spoken along with its last speaker.

Multiculturalism in modern government policy

The term multiculturalism is most often used about Western nations, which seemed to have one national identity during the 18th and/or 19th centuries. Multiculturalism has been an official policy in several Western nations since the 1970s, for reasons that differed from country to country, including that many big cities in the Western world are now made up of many cultures.

The Canadian government is often seen as a leader in supporting multicultural ideas because of its public focus on the importance of immigration. The Canadian Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism is often pointed to as the start of modern political awareness of multiculturalism. Canada has special rules for the French-speaking majority in Quebec, letting them govern themselves in some ways and making French an official language. In Western English-speaking countries, multiculturalism as an official national policy began in Canada in 1971, followed by Australia in 1973, where it is still kept today. Recently, right-of-center governments in some European Union countries – notably the Netherlands and Denmark – have changed their national policy back to focusing on one culture. A similar change is being discussed in the United Kingdom, among others, because of worries about separation and concerns over "home-grown" terrorism. Several leaders have spoken about doubts over how well multicultural policies have worked for helping immigrants fit in. The United Kingdom's former Prime Minister David Cameron, German Chancellor Angela Merkel, Australia's former prime minister John Howard, Spanish former prime minister José María Aznar and French former president Nicolas Sarkozy have all shared concerns about how successful multicultural policies have been for integrating immigrants.

Many nations in Africa, Asia, and the Americas are culturally diverse and are 'multicultural' in a general sense. In some, differences between ethnic groups are a big political issue. The policies these states use often have similarities to multicultural policies in the Western world, but their history is different, and their goal may be to build one culture or mono-ethnic nation-building – for example, the Malaysian government's aim to create a 'Malaysian race' by 2020.

Impact

Research in 2023 shows that having many different cultures and groups living together does not always make people trust each other less. What matters more is how equal people are and how much they trust their government. For example, countries like Canada and Australia have many different cultures but still work well together.

A study from 2007 looked at how different cultures affect trust in communities. It found that in places with more racial and cultural differences, people sometimes trust each other less. But the researcher said this does not mean diversity is bad. He believed that over time, people would learn to trust each other better, even with differences.

Opinions

Multiculturalism is supported by many who believe it is a fairer way for people to live together. They think it allows everyone to express their true selves in a society that is more tolerant and better at solving problems. Supporters say that culture isn't just about one race or religion, but is shaped by many changing factors.

Historically, support for multiculturalism grew after World War II. This was partly because of the horrors of events like the Holocaust, and because colonized nations in Africa and Asia fought for their independence. In the United States, the civil rights movement also helped shape these ideas. Will Kymlicka argues that multiculturalism helps protect the rights of minority groups. Tariq Modood believes multiculturalism is especially important today, as it fits well with fairness and has a good chance of success in our world.

However, some people criticize multiculturalism. They worry that it might weaken a country's unique culture. Sarah Song says cultures are always changing and influencing each other, so they don't need special rights. Susan Moller Okin has argued that focusing too much on cultural differences can sometimes harm women's rights. Others, like Dick Lamm, believe that diverse societies are often unstable. In places like New Zealand, some worry that multiculturalism might threaten the rights and culture of the Māori people.

Americas

Argentina

Main articles: Demographics of Argentina and Immigration to Argentina

The preamble of Argentina's constitution supports immigration and recognizes that people can hold multiple citizenships. Even though most people in Argentina have European descent or are mestizo, the country still has a strong mix of cultures. This allows different festivals and holidays, like Saint Patrick's Day, and supports various kinds of art and cultural expressions from many ethnic groups. Argentina also has recognized regional languages such as Guaraní in Corrientes, Quechua in Santiago del Estero, and others like Qom, Mocoví, and Wichí in Chaco. There are many registered groups from different indigenous peoples.

Bolivia

Bolivia is a country with many different indigenous groups, making up over 62% of the population. The largest groups are the Aymara and the Quechua. Bolivia's government supports many cultures, and its constitution lists 36 official languages besides Spanish. Bolivian culture includes traditions from the Aymara, Quechua, Spanish, and other cultures across Latin America.

Brazil

Brazil is known for welcoming many cultures and has changed a lot in recent years. Some say Brazil has a large mixed-race population, while others note that nearly all Brazilians speak Portuguese. Cities like São Paulo have people from places such as Japan, Italy, Lebanon, Portugal, and Africa. Brazil is working to embrace different cultures and fight unfair treatment, although there is still more to do in schools.

Canada

Canadian society is often described as progressive, diverse, and supportive of many cultures and beliefs. The Canadian government made multiculturalism an official policy in the 1970s and 1980s. This is supported by laws like the Canadian Multiculturalism Act and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Canada’s broadcasting system also reflects this diversity. Many people and groups in Canada work to support new immigrants and celebrate the country's many cultures.

Colombia

Main articles: Culture of Colombia and Demographics of Colombia

See also: Colombian cuisine, Immigration to Colombia, and History of Colombia

Colombia has many different ethnic groups. About 49% are Mestizo, 37% are White, 10% have African descent, 3.4% are Indigenous, and a small percentage are Romani. Many Colombians have European ancestors, especially from Spain, Italy, Germany, Poland, and England. There is also a large Arab diaspora from Syrians, Lebanese, and Palestinians. Colombia's constitution protects its multicultural nature.

Ecuador

Ecuador's constitution now says the country is multicultural, but for a long time, it thought of itself in a more limited way. Older ideas focused mainly on mixing Indigenous and European people, leaving out others. Even today, these older ideas still affect how people see each other, even though the law says Ecuador is multicultural.

Mexico

Mexico has always been a place where many cultures meet. After the Spanish conquest, they brought new ways of life that mixed with the existing Indigenous cultures. Today, Mexico has many different groups, including Mestizos, White Mexicans, Indigenous Mexicans, Arab Mexicans, Afro-Mexicans, and Asian Mexicans. Mexico City is changing quickly to welcome people from many backgrounds. Mexico is a rich mix of many traditions.

Peru

Peru welcomes people from many places. After the Spanish Conquest, people from Africa and Asia also came, adding to the country's mix. Today, Peru has Amerindians, Mestizos, people of European, Black, Chinese, and Japanese backgrounds. Peru makes it easy for foreigners to start new businesses and become citizens.

United States

See also: Multicultural education and Race and ethnicity in the United States

Little Italy (top, c. 1900) in New York City abuts Manhattan's Chinatown.

Although the United States does not have an official multiculturalism policy, many areas are very diverse. Many people from different countries have come to the United States since the 1800s, making it a mix of cultures. The idea of the "melting pot" means that different cultures blend together over time. This mixing helps create a strong country. Many schools now teach about different cultures so all children can learn about diversity.

Venezuela

Venezuela has many different ethnic groups. The culture comes from a mix of Indigenous, Spanish, and African traditions. Spanish is the main language, but there are also more than 40 indigenous languages spoken. The country’s history includes the Spanish Conquest, which greatly influenced religion, language, and customs, while African traditions are seen in music.

Europe

Historically, Europe has always been a mix of many cultures. These cultures include Latin, Slavic, Germanic, Uralic, Celtic, Hellenic, Illyrian, Thracian, and more. The continent has been shaped by Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and other belief systems. Even though Europe was thought to be united by Imperial Roman Christianity, geographic and cultural differences have always existed.

In the nineteenth century, the idea of nationalism changed how Europeans saw their countries. Old states broke apart, and new ones formed. These new nation-states were built on the idea that each nation should have its own sovereignty and protect its unique culture and history. Unity was seen as very important for a nation and its state. This often meant having the same descent, culture, language, and sometimes religion. The nation-state aimed to be a culturally homogeneous society, though some recognized regional differences.

Some countries in the European Union have created policies to help different groups live together, called “social cohesion” and “integration.” These policies include tests on national history and laws for people wanting to become citizens. Other countries support cultural separation. For example, France suggested protecting local cultures in trade talks.

Bulgaria

Bulgaria, founded in the seventh century, has welcomed many religions and ethnic groups. The capital, Sofia, is special because it has four major places of worship very close together. This peaceful mix has been called a “multicultural cliche” and is known as “The Square of Religious Tolerance.” Bulgaria also protected its Jewish population during World War II, showing its long history of living together with different groups. Today, Bulgaria is known for its variety of religions, arts, and ethnicities, with Turkish and Roma communities having strong political representation.

France

Further information: Immigration to France

After World War II, France needed more workers, so people from Europe, the Americas, Africa, and Asia came to help rebuild the country. Many Vietnamese and Algerian immigrants arrived during this time. Over time, these groups became part of French society, though there were challenges and conflicts.

Germany

Main article: Immigration to Germany

In 2010, a leader in Germany said that trying to build a multicultural society had not worked. She encouraged immigrants to adopt German culture and values. This started discussions about how much immigration Germany should allow and how well immigrants were fitting in.

Luxembourg

Luxembourg has many people from other countries, making up almost half of its population. Most come from Belgium, France, Italy, Germany, and Portugal. The country supports three official languages and promotes cultural diversity through UNESCO agreements.

Netherlands

The Netherlands began welcoming many immigrants in the 1950s and 1960s. By the 1980s, the country had an official policy to support different cultures. However, after the events of September 11, 2001, and the murders of two people, there was more debate about multiculturalism. By 2011, the Dutch government decided that Dutch culture should be the main influence.

Romania

Main article: Immigration to Romania

Romania has always been home to many different ethnic groups and religions. After World War II, many of these groups moved away, but since the 1990s, more people from the Arab world, Asia, and Africa have come to live there.

Russian Federation

Main articles: Ethnic groups in Russia and Russian nationality law

In Russia, multiculturalism is tied to its many regions. Each region can have its own laws and customs as long as they follow federal laws. This allows different ethnic groups to practice their traditions.

Scandinavia

In Scandinavia, discussions about multiculturalism often focus on marriage, dress, schools, funerals, and equality. Countries like Denmark, Sweden, and Norway have different policies on these topics.

Denmark

Main article: Immigration to Denmark

Denmark changed its immigration policies in 2001 to focus more on assimilation. A study found that as more people from different backgrounds moved in, some election results changed. For many years, Denmark believed that with help, immigrants would eventually match Danish education levels, but a 2019 report showed this was not happening for later generations.

Norway

Main article: Immigration to Norway

Norway has many immigrants from EU and EEA countries, Asia, Africa, and other places. In 2015, many people seeking safety came to Norway from Afghanistan and Syria, but this number dropped sharply in 2016. Some people who went to join a group overseas had their permissions to live in Norway taken away. Norway debates how to balance immigration with protecting its values.

Sweden

Main article: Immigration to Sweden

Sweden has had more non-Western immigrants than its Scandinavian neighbors since the 1970s. In 1975, Sweden became the first country in Europe to officially support multiculturalism. The government wanted equality, partnership, and freedom of choice for all groups. Despite some opposition, multiculturalism remains official policy in Sweden.

Serbia

Serbia recognizes 19 ethnic groups as national minorities. Vojvodina, a region in northern Serbia, is especially diverse, with over 26 ethnic groups and six official languages. Projects to promote multiculturalism and tolerance have been successful since 2005. Serbia continues to work on including minorities as it aims to join the European Union.

United Kingdom

Further information: Modern immigration to the United Kingdom

The UK began adopting multicultural policies in the 1970s and 1980s. By 1997, the national government supported multiculturalism, but after 2001, there was a shift toward community cohesion. In 2011, a UK leader said that state multiculturalism had failed. Some argue that saying society is “too diverse” can lead to unfair treatment of immigrants, while others believe the UK should not be a multicultural society.

Yugoslavia

Before it broke apart, Yugoslavia was a multicultural country.

Asia

India

India has many languages and cultures. According to the 1961 Census of India, there are 1,652 indigenous languages in the country. The culture of India has been shaped by its long history, unique geography, and diverse demography. India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, and customs differ from place to place within the country, but nevertheless possess a commonality. The culture of India is an amalgamation of these diverse sub-cultures spread all over the Indian subcontinent and traditions that are several millennia old.

Religiously, Hindus form the majority, followed by Muslims. India follows a three-language policy. Hindi is the official federal language, English has the federal status of associate/subsidiary official language and each state has its own state official language. India does not have any national language. Most states differ from one another in language, culture, cuisine, clothing, literary style, architecture, music and festivities.

Indonesia

Further information: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, Demographics of Indonesia, Ethnic groups in Indonesia, and Culture of Indonesia

Indonesia is a country with many cultures and languages. There are over 600 ethnic groups in Indonesia. 95% of those are of Native Indonesian ancestry. The Javanese are the largest ethnic group in Indonesia who make up nearly 42% of the total population. Indonesia's national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika ("Unity in Diversity") articulates the diversity that shapes the country. The government nurtures and promotes the diversity of Indonesian local culture; adopting a pluralist approach.

However, this caused socio-cultural problems, as the inter-ethnics interactions have not always been conducted harmoniously. After the fall of Suharto in 1998 into the 2000s, a number of inter-ethnic and inter-religious clashes erupted in Indonesia.

Kazakhstan

See also: 1951 anti-Chechen pogrom in Eastern Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan has many ethnic groups including Kazakhs, Russians, Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Uighurs, Tatars, Germans and more. Kazakhstan was one of a few countries in post-Soviet territories that avoided interethnic clashes and conflicts in the period of USSR's final crisis and its eventual breakup. In 1995, Kazakhstan created the Assembly of People of Kazakhstan, an advisory body designed to represent the country's ethnic minorities.

Malaysia

Main articles: Ketuanan Melayu, Bumiputera (Malaysia), and Demographics of Malaysia

Malaysia is a multiethnic country, with Malays making up the majority, close to 58% of the population. About 25% of the population are Malaysians of Chinese descent. Malaysians of Indian descent comprise about 7% of the population. The remaining 10% comprises several groups including East Malaysians, Peninsular Malaysia tribes, and Non-native tribes of Peninsular Malaysia.

Singapore

Main article: Immigration to Singapore

Singapore has a Chinese majority population with significant minority populations of Malays and Indians (predominantly Tamils). Other prominent smaller groups include Peranakans, Arabs, Armenians, Eurasians, Europeans, Americans, and Canadians. Besides English, Singapore recognizes three other languages—Malay, Mandarin Chinese and Tamil. English was established as the medium of instruction in schools during the 1960s and 1970s and is the language of trade and government while the other three languages are taught as second languages.

Under the Raffles Plan of Singapore, the city was divided into ethnic enclaves. Housing in Singapore is governed by the Ethnic Integration Policy, which ensures an even ethnic distribution throughout Singapore. A similar policy exists in politics as all Group Representation Constituencies are required to field at least one candidate from an ethnic minority.

South Korea

Main article: Immigration to South Korea

South Korea remains a relatively homogenous country ethnically, linguistically, and culturally. Foreigners, expatriates, and immigrants are often rejected by the mainstream South Korean society and face discrimination. South Korea has been long regarded as an ethnic homogeneous country, therefore, the rise in mixed-race children was seen as a new phenomenon.

Turkey

Main article: Immigration to Turkey

Turkey is a country that straddles both Europe and Asia. It is home to several ethnic groups including Turkish, Arab, Armenian, Assyrian, Greek, Kurdish, and Jewish. There are cultural influences dating back to ancient Hellenic, Mediterranean, Semitic and Iranian civilizations which diffused and mingled in myriad ways over a period of centuries.

Africa

Cameroon

Cameroon, officially called the Republic of Cameroon, is located in central Africa. It has many different landscapes, including mountains, deserts, rainforests, coastlands, and savanna grasslands. This variety makes Cameroon very diverse, often called "Africa in Miniature" because it reflects the whole continent.

Before Cameroon became independent, it was ruled by Britain and France. After gaining independence, both English and French became official languages. There are also many other languages spoken there, including a mix of French, English, and Pidgin called Frananglais. In total, about 273 different languages are spoken in Cameroon, showing its rich cultural and linguistic diversity.

Mauritius

Mauritius is an island where many cultures have mixed together over time due to colonization by the English, French, and Dutch. People there come from many different backgrounds, including Hindu, Muslim, Indo-Mauritians, Mauritian Creoles, Sino-Mauritians, and Franco-Mauritians. Instead of thinking of their culture as a "melting pot," where everything blends into one, Mauritius uses the term "fruit-salad" to show that all cultures stay unique and valued.

South Africa

South Africa is one of the most populous and developed countries in Africa. It officially recognizes 11 languages, including English, Zulu, Xhosa, and Afrikaans. Even as the country becomes more influenced by Western culture, it still celebrates its many cultural traditions.

Main article: Immigration to South Africa

Oceania

Australia

Australia was the next country after Canada to officially support multiculturalism. Like Canada, Australia has many people from different countries coming to live there. The government and many people in Australia believe that having many cultures is important and good.

After World War II, Australia changed its rules about who could move there. Before, there were rules that favored people from certain backgrounds, but these rules were changed. Official multicultural policies started in 1972. Even though some leaders have questioned multiculturalism, many people in Australia enjoy sharing foods, traditions, and customs from many different places.

New Zealand

New Zealand also chose to support many cultures after World War II. Like Australia, New Zealand used to have rules that made it hard for people from some places to move there. But later, the country changed its mind and started welcoming people from all over.

In the 1980s, more people from Asia and Pacific islands moved to New Zealand, making the country more mixed. In 1987, New Zealand made the Māori language an official language, and it is now taught in schools and used on television. The government also created an office to help different cultural groups get along and feel included.

Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea has one of the most varied groups of people in the world. There are over eight million people, speaking more than 820 different languages and belonging to many different groups. Most people are Papuans, whose ancestors have lived there for a very long time, or Austronesians, who arrived more recently. There are also people from other countries living there, like China, Australia, Indonesia, Europe, and the Philippines. Even with all these differences, Papua New Guinea is home to only one place recognized by UNESCO for its important history.