Pope

The pope is the bishop of Rome and the head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. The current pope is Leo XIV, who was elected on 8 May 2025 on the second day of the 2025 papal conclave.

According to Catholic tradition, the apostolic see of Rome was founded by Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the first century. The papacy is one of the longest enduring institutions in the world and has been a prominent force in human history. In ancient times, the popes helped spread Christianity and intervened to find resolutions in various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of secular importance in Western Europe, often acting as arbitrators between Christian monarchs.

In addition to the expansion of Christian faith and doctrine, modern popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, and the defence of human rights. The pope is considered one of the world's most powerful people due to the extensive diplomatic, cultural, and spiritual influence of his position on both 1.4 billion Catholics and those outside the Catholic faith, and because he heads the world's largest non-government provider of education and health care, with a vast network of charities.

History

Main article: History of the papacy

Title and etymology

The word pope comes from the Ancient Greek word páppas, meaning "father." In the early days of Christianity, this title was used for all bishops and senior church leaders, especially in the East. Over time, it became reserved for the bishop of Rome, starting during the time of Pope Leo I (440–461). The earliest known use of the title "pope" was for the deceased patriarch of Alexandria, Heraclas, around the year 248. The word "pope" started being used in English in the mid-10th century to refer to the 7th-century Roman Pope Vitalian.

Position within the Church

The Catholic Church teaches that the role of leading the Church, once held by the apostles with Saint Peter as their head, is now held by bishops, with the bishop of Rome (the pope) as their head. This is why the pope is also called the "supreme pontiff." The Church believes that Jesus personally chose Peter to lead the Church, and that the pope is Peter's successor. Some historians debate whether Peter was actually the first bishop of Rome, noting that the role of bishop in Rome may not have existed until the 3rd century.

Early Christianity (c. 30–325)

In the early Christian years, the words for bishop and priest were used interchangeably. By the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local churches were led by bishops and priests, whose roles often overlapped. Some believe there was no single "monarchical" bishop in Rome before the middle of the 2nd century. Rome, along with a few other cities, claimed leadership of the worldwide Church. James the Just, known as "the brother of the Lord," led the church in Jerusalem, which is still honored in Orthodox tradition. Alexandria became a center of Christian learning. Rome had a large congregation early on, whom Paul the Apostle addressed in his letter to the Romans. Tradition says Paul was martyred there.

During the 1st century of the Church (around 30–130), Rome became a very important Christian center. The church there wrote a letter to the Church in Corinth to settle a big dispute. There are a few other references from that time showing that the Roman church was seen as important outside of Rome. In 195, Pope Victor I excommunicated some Christian groups for celebrating Easter on the 14th of Nisan, the date of the Jewish Passover. The pope insisted on celebrating Easter on a Sunday, and this practice has continued ever since.

Nicaea to East–West Schism (325–1054)

The Edict of Milan in 313 allowed all religions in the Roman Empire, beginning a time called the Peace of the Church. In 325, the First Council of Nicaea condemned Arianism and declared trinitarianism as the official belief. The council also recognized the special roles of the churches in Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. Great defenders of the trinitarian faith included popes like Liberius, who was exiled for his beliefs, and Damasus I.

In 380, the Edict of Thessalonica made Nicene Christianity the state religion of the empire. While the Eastern Roman Empire controlled the church and the patriarch of Constantinople had much power, in the Western Roman Empire, the bishops of Rome gained more influence. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, barbarian tribes converted to Christianity. Clovis I, king of the Franks, was the first important barbarian ruler to convert to the mainstream church, allying with the papacy.

Middle Ages

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the pope was a key source of authority. Pope Gregory I (around 540–604) led the church with strict reforms. He came from an ancient senatorial family and governed with the discipline of ancient Roman rule. Theologically, he represented a shift from classical to medieval thinking. His writings often included dramatic miracles, powerful relics, demons, angels, ghosts, and thoughts about the approaching end of the world.

Gregory's successors were often influenced by the exarch of Ravenna, the Byzantine emperor's representative in Italy. These challenges, along with the weakening Byzantine Empire and the inability to protect papal lands from the Lombards, led Pope Stephen II to seek help from the Franks. Pepin the Short defeated the Lombards and gave land to the papacy. When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as emperor in 800, it set a precedent that no emperor in Western Europe would be crowned without a pope.

The papacy faced a low point from 867 to 1049, known as the Saeculum obscurum, the Crescentii era, and the Tusculan Papacy. During this time, popes were controlled by political factions, often imprisoned, starved, killed, or deposed by force. The Counts of Tusculum made and unmade popes for fifty years. Pope John XII, descendant of one of these counts, was accused of wild behavior in the Lateran Palace. Emperor Otto I had him deposed and replaced, but John had himself reinstated.

In 1049, Leo IX traveled across Europe to address the church's moral issues, such as simony and clerical marriage. His journey restored the papacy's prestige in Northern Europe. From the 7th century, it became common for European kings and nobles to found churches and control clergy in their states, leading to corruption. To fight this, centers like the Abbey of Cluny promoted reform, which gained strength with Pope Gregory VII in 1073. He fought against simony and the abuse of civil power, trying to restore church discipline, including clerical celibacy.

In 1122, the conflict between popes and secular rulers, known as the Investiture controversy, was resolved by the Concordat of Worms. Pope Callixtus II decreed that clerics would be invested by church leaders, while temporal rulers would invest laypeople. Soon after, Pope Alexander III began reforms leading to the establishment of canon law.

Starting in the 7th century, Islamic conquests controlled much of the southern Mediterranean, seen as a threat to Christianity. In 1095, the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos asked Pope Urban II for military aid in the Byzantine–Seljuq wars. Urban called the First Crusade at the council of Clermont to help the Byzantine Empire regain Christian territories, especially Jerusalem.

East–West Schism to Reformation (1054–1517)

Main article: East–West Schism

With the East–West Schism, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church split in 1054. This division was caused more by political events than small differences in belief. Popes had angered the Byzantine emperors by supporting the king of the Franks, crowning a rival Roman emperor, taking control of the Exarchate of Ravenna, and moving into Greek Italy.

In the Middle Ages, popes often clashed with monarchs over power. From 1309 to 1377, the pope lived in Avignon. The Avignon Papacy was known for greed and corruption. During this time, the pope was allied with the Kingdom of France, upsetting France's enemies like the Kingdom of England.

The pope was believed to have the power to use a spiritual treasure built up by saints and by Christ to grant indulgences, which reduced one's time in purgatory. Over time, people started to think that paying money was enough to gain these indulgences, even though the popes condemned this misunderstanding.

Popes also had to deal with cardinals who sometimes tried to assert the authority of Catholic Ecumenical Councils over the pope. Conciliarism, the idea that a General Council has supreme authority over the pope, was laid out in the early 13th century and reached its peak in the 15th century with Jean Gerson as its main supporter. The failure of Conciliarism to gain wide acceptance after the 15th century is seen as a factor in the Protestant Reformation.

Various Antipopes challenged papal authority, especially during the Western Schism (1378–1417). The schism ended when the Council of Constance decided among the papal claimants. The Eastern Church continued to decline with the Eastern Roman Empire, weakening Constantinople's claim to equality with Rome. Eastern emperors tried twice to force the Eastern Church to reunite with the West, first at the Second Council of Lyon (1272–1274) and then at the Council of Florence (1431–1449). Papal claims of superiority were a major obstacle, and reunification failed. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire.

Reformation to present (1517 to today)

Protestant Reformers criticized the papacy as corrupt and saw the pope as the antichrist. Popes started a Catholic Reformation (1560–1648) to address the challenges of the Protestant Reformation and make internal reforms. Pope Paul III began the Council of Trent (1545–1563), which defined doctrine and made reforms to strengthen the papacy.

Gradually, popes had to give up secular power to European nation-states and focused more on spiritual matters. In 1870, the First Vatican Council declared the dogma of papal infallibility for the most serious occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra on matters of faith or morals. That same year, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy took Rome from the pope and completed the unification of Italy.

In 1929, the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See established Vatican City as an independent city-state, ensuring the pope's independence from secular rule. In 1950, Pope Pius XII defined the Assumption of Mary as dogma, the only time a pope has spoken ex cathedra since papal infallibility was declared. The Primacy of St. Peter, the basis for the pope's authority, continues to be a point of division between Eastern and Western churches and between Protestants and Rome.

Early Christian mentions

See also: History of papal primacy

The early Christian writers spoke about the special role of the bishops of Rome. They saw the bishop of Rome as an important leader in the Church. These early writings helped shape the idea of the pope's important place in Catholic belief and practice.

In his letters, Cyprian of Carthage (around 210–258 AD) called the bishop of Rome the successor of Saint Peter. He wrote about Pope Cornelius and his role as a leader in the early Church.

Irenaeus of Lyons (around 130–202 AD) listed the early popes from Saint Peter to Pope Eleutherius. He mentioned how the apostles Peter and Paul started the Church in Rome and passed on the leadership to others.

Ignatius of Antioch (died around 108/140 AD) praised the Church in Rome, saying it was a special place that led with love.

Augustine of Hippo (354–430 AD) also listed the early popes, showing how they followed one after another from Saint Peter.

Eusebius (around 260/265 – 339 AD) wrote about Linus as Saint Peter's successor and Clement as the third bishop of Rome. He said Clement worked with Saint Paul.

Tertullian (around 155 – around 220 AD) spoke about the authority of the Church in Rome because it was started by the apostles. He mentioned how Clement of Rome was chosen by Saint Peter to lead the Church in Rome.

Optatus, a bishop from Milevis in Numidia (today's Algeria), wrote about how the bishop of Rome helped keep the Church united. He said the first bishop of Rome was Saint Peter, who was called the "Rock" because he was the head of all the apostles.

Saint Peter and the origin of the papal office

See also: Primacy of Simon Peter

The Catholic Church believes that the bishops, together, continue the work of the apostles, and that the bishop of Rome continues the work of Saint Peter. Some important Bible passages show why many believe Peter had a special role in the church:

• Matthew 16: Jesus tells Peter, "You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church. The gates of hell will not stop it. I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven. What you decide on earth will be decided in heaven."

• Luke 22: Jesus says to Peter, "Satan wants to test you as a farmer sifts wheat, but I have prayed for you. Once you recover, help strengthen your brothers."

• John 21: Jesus tells Peter, "Take care of my sheep."

The picture of keys in the symbols used by popes comes from the words about "the keys of the kingdom of heaven" in the first passage. Some other Christian writers think the "rock" Jesus speaks of is Jesus himself or Peter's faith. However, many scholars think the "rock" refers to Peter himself.

New Eliakim

According to the Catholic Church, the pope is also seen as the new Eliakim, a person in the Old Testament of the Bible. Eliakim helped manage important work in a royal palace and had special authority.

Both parts of the Bible talk about important keys. In the Book of Isaiah, Eliakim gets keys that show his power to open and close things. In the Book of Matthew, Peter also gets keys, showing his power to make decisions that matter very much.

Election, death, and resignation

Election

Main article: Papal conclave

The pope is chosen by important church leaders called cardinals. Today, only cardinals under 80 years old can vote. The pope does not need to be a cardinal himself, but he must be someone who can become a bishop. The process of choosing a new pope is called a conclave, where the cardinals meet in the Sistine Chapel. They vote until one person gets two-thirds of the votes. When a new pope is chosen, they announce it by showing white smoke from a special chimney and ringing bells. The new pope then chooses a name to be known by.

Death

When a pope passes away, there is a period called sede vacante, meaning the papal seat is empty. During this time, the cardinals take care of the church until a new pope is chosen. The pope's personal items are sealed away, and his ring is cut in half to show it can no longer be used. The body lies in state for a few days before being buried in a church crypt.

Resignation

Main article: Papal resignation

It is very rare for a pope to step down from their role. The last pope to resign was Benedict XVI in 2013. For a resignation to be valid, it must be done freely and clearly, but it does not need to be accepted by anyone else.

Titles

Regnal name

When a new pope is chosen, they pick a special name to be known by from then on. This name is called their papal name. After the pope accepts, a special announcement is made from a balcony, sharing the new name with everyone. This new name is used in all languages when talking about the pope.

Official list of titles

The pope has many important titles. The main ones are: Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of the Prince of Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Patriarch of the West, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the Vatican City State, and Servant of the servants of God.

The word "pope" is the most well-known title, even though it is not on the official list. It has been used since ancient times for bishops in different places.

Vicar of Jesus Christ

One of the pope's important titles is "Vicar of Jesus Christ." This means the pope represents Jesus Christ's leadership of the Church on Earth. This title has been used for many centuries and reminds us of the special role the pope has in guiding the Church.

Supreme pontiff

The word "pontiff" comes from an ancient Roman term meaning "bridge builder." In the Christian Church, it came to refer to bishops, and later especially to the bishop of Rome. The pope is often called the Supreme Pontiff, meaning the highest leader of the Church.

Servant of the servants of God

Another title the pope uses is "Servant of the servants of God." This title was used by early church leaders and became especially linked to the pope as a reminder of humility in serving others.

Patriarch of the West

For a time, the pope also used the title "Patriarch of the West," showing his special role in leading the Latin Church. This title was not always listed but was added back recently to reflect the pope's ongoing importance.

Other titles

The pope is also often called "His Holiness" or "Holy Father" as signs of respect.

Signature

Popes often sign important documents in special ways. Some signatures include the word "Pope" in Latin, while others use the pope's chosen name along with a special mark to show their role as leader of the Church.

Main article: Papal titles

Main article: Patriarch of the West

Regalia and insignia

Main article: Papal regalia and insignia

The pope has special items that represent their role. The Ring of the Fisherman is a gold ring with a picture of St. Peter in a boat. There is also a colorful umbrella called the umbraculum that is carried above the pope during special walks.

The pope used to ride in a special chair called the sedia gestatoria, carried by people in red uniforms. This practice stopped with Pope John Paul II.

Each pope has their own coat of arms. It often shows two crossed keys and a special hat called a triregnum on top. Pope Benedict XVI changed his coat of arms to use a simpler hat called a mitre instead. Pope Francis kept this change.

The flag linked most with the pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City. It shows the crossed keys and the special hat, even though the popes themselves now use a simpler design. This flag was first used in 1808.

Papal garments

The pope usually wears white clothes. This tradition started a long time ago. Popes also wear special red and white clothing for important events. Pictures from many years ago show popes wearing white outfits similar to what is worn today.

Status and authority

First Vatican Council

Main articles: Papal supremacy and Papal infallibility

The role and power of the pope in the Catholic Church were clearly defined by the First Vatican Council in 1870. The council taught that the pope is the main leader of all Christians and has special authority given by God. When the pope makes important teachings about what Christians should believe, he does so with help from God and cannot make mistakes.

Second Vatican Council

The Second Vatican Council in 1964 talked more about the duties of bishops and the pope. Bishops have a big job in teaching people about their faith, and they work together with the pope. The council also said that the pope has special help from God when he makes important teachings for the whole Church. These teachings are meant to guide everyone in what they should believe and practice.

In 2012, some theologians said that some ideas from the Second Vatican Council had not been fully used to balance power in the Church.

Politics and functions of the Holy See

The pope, as the bishop of Rome, has his main office in the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, which is the main church for the area of Rome. His home is the Apostolic Palace, and he also has a summer home at Castel Gandolfo.

The Holy See is another name for the pope’s area of control, which includes the work of the Roman Curia. The pope’s important jobs, powers, and rights come from being the bishop of Rome, continuing from Saint Peter, one of the first followers of Jesus. Because of this, Rome is very important in the Catholic Church. The pope does not have to live in Rome, though; when popes lived in Avignon, France, between 1309 and 1378, this was called the “Babylonian captivity”.

The pope receives a monthly salary, but current Pope Francis chooses not to take it and gives the money to those in need. The Church pays for all the pope’s meals, home, clothes, travel (including the Popemobile), safety, cleaning, and health care. After retiring, a pope gets a smaller monthly pension.

Even though the pope is the main bishop for Rome, he mostly lets a cardinal vicar handle everyday church work for the city. This helps make sure the church in Rome runs smoothly.

Popes have had a big political role through history. They helped shape rules and agreements between countries. In recent times, popes have used their position to help solve disagreements between nations and support peace.

Objections to the papacy

Many other churches do not agree with the pope's authority. They believe he does not have the same special role as other bishops, especially in making decisions for the whole church.

Orthodox, Anglican and Old Catholic churches

Main article: Historicism (Christianity)

Some churches, like the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion, honor the pope as an important leader but do not accept that he has full power over all Christians. They think his importance comes from being the bishop of Rome, the old capital of the Roman Empire, but he does not have the right to make decisions for everyone.

Protestant denominations

Many Protestant Christian groups do not accept the pope's claims to special authority or infallibility. Some even believe the pope is described in old Bible passages as a powerful wrong leader.

This strong disagreement is especially true for some Lutheran groups. For example, the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod have officially stated their beliefs about this.

Historically, Protestants also objected to the pope trying to control secular governments and lands in Italy, which helped lead to the Protestant Reformation in Western Christianity.

Antipopes

Main articles: Antipope and Western Schism

Sometimes, groups support leaders who say they are the pope but were not chosen properly by the church. These leaders are called antipopes. This usually happens because of big disagreements in the church about beliefs or because people were unsure about who the real pope was. In one time period, called the 15th century, there were even three different groups each saying their leader was the true pope.

Other uses of the title "Pope"

Long ago, early Christian leaders were sometimes called "pope," which means "father." Over time, this special title became linked mainly with the bishop of Rome, who is the leader of the Catholic Church today.

In some Christian groups, leaders are also called "pope." For example, in the Coptic and Greek Orthodox churches in Alexandria, the main bishop is called "pope." Some smaller Christian groups, like the Legio Maria Church in Africa and the Palmarian Catholic Church in Spain, also use the title "pope" for their leaders.

Lengths of papal reign

Main article: List of popes

Some popes have led the Catholic Church for many years. The longest-known time a pope led the Church is about 34 to 38 years, and some others led for more than 20 years.

A few popes led the Church for only a short time — sometimes just a few days or weeks. This short time was often because they became very sick soon after they were chosen to lead.