Reformation

The Reformation was a big change in religious ideas that happened in Europe during the 1500s. It began when a man named Martin Luther shared his thoughts in a book called the Ninety-five Theses in 1517. Luther and other leaders believed that people could find favor with God just by believing in Jesus, not by doing many good deeds as the Catholic Church taught at the time. This new way of thinking led to the start of Protestantism.

Many new Christian groups grew from these ideas. In Switzerland, Huldrych Zwingli and in France, John Calvin helped create their own versions of these beliefs. In England, Thomas Cranmer and in Scotland, John Knox led changes that created the Anglican and Presbyterian churches. There were also groups called Radical Reformers, like the Anabaptists, who wanted to live even closer to the ways of early Christians.

The spread of books because of Gutenberg's printing press helped these new ideas reach many people quickly. The Catholic Church also made changes in response, called the Counter-Reformation, to answer questions and fix problems that the reformers pointed out. These religious changes led to many conflicts and wars across Europe.

Terminology

The term "Reformation" refers to important changes in Christian beliefs and practices that happened in the 1500s. It includes four main movements: Lutheranism, Calvinism, the Radical Reformation, and the Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation. Historians today often talk about the Reformation in plural because it wasn't one single event but many movements happening at the same time.

One commonly accepted starting point for the Reformation is October 31, 1517, when the German theologian Martin Luther shared his ideas about church practices. Some others believe it began earlier, in 1516, when a Swiss priest named Huldrych Zwingli began speaking out against church abuses. The exact end date of the Reformation is still debated among historians.

Background

Calamities

Europe faced many troubles from the early 1300s. A big sickness called the Black Death killed about a third of all people. By around 1500, Europe’s population was smaller than before. Because there weren’t enough workers, some rules changed, which sometimes caused protests.

People were often worried about sudden deaths. This fear showed up in art and in special church services for the dead. There were also worries about magic, which led to some unfair treatments of people accused of using it.

Late Medieval Christianity

People in villages and towns often joined groups to help each other. They visited special places and read the Bible, especially stories from Jesus’ life. Church buildings were filled with beautiful paintings and statues.

The Church taught that to go to heaven, people needed to be in a good state when they died. They believed in doing kind acts, like helping the hungry and sick.

Humanism

A new way of thinking called Humanism started in the late Middle Ages. Humanists loved studying old books and learning from ancient thinkers. They wanted to go “back to the sources” to understand things better. When printing became easier, more people could read books, including the Bible in different languages.

Dissidents

Even before the big changes called the Reformation, some people didn’t agree with everything the Church taught. For example, John Wycliffe in England and Jan Hus in Prague spoke out against what they saw as wrong. They believed more in reading the Bible directly. Their ideas helped prepare the way for bigger changes later.

Beginnings

The Reformation in Germany began with Martin Luther, but many of his ideas were influenced by earlier thinkers like Wycliff, Huss, Erasmus, and Zwingli. Historians see the Reformation as both a continuation and an intensification of trends within the Catholic Church, rather than a complete rejection of it.

Luther and the Ninety-five Theses

Pope Leo X wanted to build St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and decided to raise money by selling certificates called indulgences. A monk named Johann Tetzel sold these indulgences very aggressively in Germany. This upset many people, including Martin Luther, a professor at the University of Wittenberg. Luther believed that people could not buy their way to heaven and that faith was more important.

On October 31, 1517, Luther wrote a letter to a bishop with his Ninety-five Theses, which questioned the sale of indulgences. The bishop asked other theologians to review Luther's ideas, and soon the matter reached the Pope. Pope Leo X did not want to cause trouble with Luther's supporter, Frederick the Wise, so he sent a cardinal to talk to Luther. However, Luther refused to take back his ideas unless the Bible showed them to be wrong.

New theology

Luther shared his ideas publicly in 1518, speaking about a loving God who saves people through faith, not just good works. He believed that God chooses who will be saved and that faith is a gift from God. Over time, Luther's ideas grew. He taught that only two sacraments—baptism and the Eucharist—were truly important, and that priests were servants, not special rulers.

Luther wrote many books explaining his views. In 1520, he called the Pope the Antichrist and criticized the idea that priests had to remain unmarried. He also wrote about the freedom that comes from faith. In 1521, the Pope ordered Luther's books to be burned, and Luther was called to defend himself before the Holy Roman Emperor. Luther refused to take back his ideas and was protected by Frederick the Wise.

Spread

Luther's ideas spread quickly because of the printing press. His short, powerful books became very popular. Printers in many German cities helped spread his message. Artists like Lucas Cranach also helped by creating images that explained Luther's teachings.

Enthusiastic preachers helped spread Luther's ideas in cities like Basel, Schaffhausen, Strasbourg, and Ulm. These preachers, called Evangelicals, emphasized teaching from the Gospels and challenged many old church practices. They believed that many traditions had no basis in the Bible.

Cities that governed themselves, like those in the Hanseatic League, were often the first to adopt Luther's ideas. The spread of the Reformation was also influenced by student networks and neighboring cities that had already rejected Catholicism.

Resistance and oppression

Not everyone accepted Luther's ideas. In places like Flanders, the Rhineland, Bavaria, and Austria, many people strongly resisted the Reformation. Cities with important religious sites or monasteries were less likely to adopt Luther's teachings. Even some famous thinkers of the time, like Erasmus, criticized Luther.

In some countries, Luther's books were burned, and followers were punished. For example, in Brussels, two monks were executed for their beliefs. In England, King Henry VIII defended the Catholic Church against Luther's ideas. In Scotland, the first Evangelical preacher was executed. In France, some reformers were forced into exile after the king was captured in battle.

In Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland, Luther's ideas spread among German communities, but local rulers often opposed them. In Denmark and Norway, a new king took power and was more open to the Reformation, while in Sweden, a local leader became king and supported the changes.

Alternatives

Saxon radicals and rebellious knights

Further information: Radical Reformation and Knights' War

Andreas Karlstadt helped change the church in Wittenberg. He changed how the Eucharist, or Holy Communion, was given and spoke out against old religious images. Some people in Wittenberg felt new ideas were coming, but others did not agree. Luther, a leader of the changes, tried to calm things down. Some knights, like Franz von Sickingen, fought against church leaders but were not successful.

Zwingli

Main article: Theology of Huldrych Zwingli

Huldrych Zwingli was a priest in Zürich who started changing church rules even before Luther. He did not follow rules about eating meat during Lent. He removed images from churches and changed many church practices. Zwingli thought the Eucharist was just a memory of Jesus, not that Jesus was really present in the bread and wine. This caused disagreements with Luther.

Swiss Brethren

Main article: Swiss Brethren

Some people, like Conrad Grebel, wanted even bigger changes. They believed only adults should be baptized and that the church should be separate from government rules. In 1525, some people were baptized again as a sign of their belief, and were called Anabaptists. This led to troubles, and some were treated very harshly by leaders who did not agree with them.

Peasants' War

Main article: German Peasants' War

In 1524 and 1525, many farmers in Germany were unhappy with their leaders. They made a list of demands, called the Twelve Articles, asking for fair treatment and the right to choose their church leaders. Some leaders gave advice, but did not answer the farmers. The farmers fought but were defeated by soldiers. Some leaders of the farmers were caught and punished.

Consolidation

Princely Reformation in Germany

The Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach, was the first prince to leave the traditions of the old church. After losing battles, he changed the land into the Duchy of Prussia in 1525. He and his brothers told priests in Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Brandenburg-Ansbach to teach new beliefs. The Reformation began in Electoral Saxony under John the Constant in 1525. This helped smaller German states like Mansfeld and Hessen accept the Reformation. Philip of Hessen started the first new university at Marburg in 1527.

At the Diet of Speyer in 1526, German princes agreed they could choose their own religious path. Emperor Charles was busy with wars, so his brother Ferdinand represented him. They disagreed, but Ferdinand had to deal with problems in Bohemia and Hungary. In 1527, Charles' soldiers took control of Rome and held the Pope. Martin Luther believed that the emperor, while fighting for the Pope, ended up helping Luther's cause.

Luther stopped talking about congregations choosing their ministers. Instead, he thought princes should help keep the church together. In Electoral Saxony, new rules were made. Services were made simpler, and state leaders took control of church lands. A new leader named superintendent was appointed in 1533. Luther made two sets of teachings—one for priests and one for children—because he found that people didn't know much about their faith. New leaders sometimes criticized old traditions like church fairs.

Five princes and fourteen cities protested at the Diet of Speyer in 1529, leading to the name "Protestants". A meeting was held in Marburg in 1529 to unite different groups, but they disagreed on important beliefs. Zwingli's followers called themselves the "Reformed".

Stalemate in Switzerland

In 1526, villages in Graubünden, Switzerland, decided they could choose between the old and new beliefs. This set an example for others. Protestant and Catholic areas in Switzerland argued a lot. Protestant areas made an alliance in 1529, and Catholic areas did the same in April. After a peaceful fight, villages were allowed to choose their religion by vote. Zwingli tried to convince people to join the new beliefs, but after a battle in 1531 where he died, the Catholics stopped the spread of the new beliefs in Switzerland.

Confessions

In 1530, Charles V asked Protestants to explain their beliefs at the Diet in Augsburg. Since Luther couldn't go, Melanchthon wrote down their beliefs in twenty-eight articles called the Augsburg Confession. Four cities had their own document because they followed Zwingli's ideas. Charles asked Catholic leaders to respond, and they wrote a refutation. Melanchthon then wrote a defense called the Apology of the Augsburg Confession.

Charles wanted to punish Protestant leaders, but some Catholic leaders didn't support him. In 1531, Protestant leaders formed the Schmalkaldic League for protection. A peace treaty was signed in Nuremberg in 1532 because of threats from the Ottoman Empire.

Royal Reformation in Scandinavia

In Denmark and Norway, kings and parliaments started changing the church. In 1526, a preacher named Hans Tausen began teaching new beliefs with the king's support. After some conflicts, Christian III became king and supported the new beliefs. He made the Augsburg Confession the official beliefs in 1538.

In Norway and Iceland, leaders resisted the changes. In Iceland, Bishop Jón Arason fought against the changes but was captured.

In Sweden, King Gustav I supported new beliefs. He appointed new leaders and translated religious texts. He took control of church lands to pay debts. Some people were unhappy with the changes, leading to uprisings. Gustav made promises to calm people down but continued changing the church.

Catholic reform

See also: Counter-Reformation

The time was difficult for the Catholic Church, especially after big events like the sack of Rome in 1527. Many people felt the church needed to change. Pope Paul III chose important leaders to help fix problems inside the church. They wrote reports about bad things happening, like misuse of money.

New groups, like the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits), started to help. Their leader, Ignatius of Loyola, created guides to help people grow in their faith. The Jesuits focused on teaching and preparing priests, especially to answer questions from people with different beliefs.

To address these issues, Pope Paul III called a big meeting called the Council of Trent. This meeting happened over many years and talked about important beliefs and how to improve the church. After the meeting, the church made changes to strengthen its teachings and organization, including creating new guides for priests and church leaders.

New waves

English reformation under Henry VIII

In England, religious leaders spread new ideas about the Christian faith among scholars and students at universities like Cambridge and Oxford. A young priest named William Tyndale translated the New Testament into English, making it easier for people to read the Bible in their own language. This translation had a big impact on the English language.

King Henry VIII wanted to end his marriage to Catherine of Aragon because she had not given him a son. He asked scholars for reasons why the marriage could be ended. They argued that English kings had always been in charge of the church, and that the Bible did not allow a man to marry his brother’s widow. With support from his new advisor Thomas Cromwell, Henry decided to break away from the leadership of the Pope in Rome. He married Anne Boleyn and became the leader of the Church of England. Many people who refused to support this change were punished.

Münster

In the city of Münster, a group of people led by Jan Matthijszoon took control and tried to create a new society based on their strict religious beliefs. They outlawed private property and money, and made strict rules for everyone to follow. However, their rule did not last long. After a long siege by enemy forces, the city was taken over. The leaders were killed, and most of these radical groups stopped being violent and became peaceful instead.

Calvin and the Institutes of the Christian Religion

John Calvin, a French lawyer, became a key leader in the Reformation after leaving France due to persecution. He wrote a important book called the Institutes of the Christian Religion, where he explained his beliefs about the Christian faith. Calvin believed that God had already decided who would be saved and who would not, a idea known as “double predestination.” He moved to Geneva, where he helped create strict rules for the church and community life. People who did not follow these rules faced serious consequences.

Reformation in Britain

After King Henry VIII died, his son Edward VI took over. Under Edward’s rule, more changes were made to the English church, such as removing statues from churches and changing the way services were conducted. When Edward died, his half-sister Mary took over and tried to bring back many Catholic traditions, which caused unrest. After Mary died, her half-sister Elizabeth became queen. Elizabeth tried to find a balance between different religious groups, creating a middle path that many people could accept. This helped shape the Church of England into what it is today.

Wars of religion and tolerance

Schmalkaldic Wars

Scandals and internal conflicts weakened the position of Protestant groups in Germany in the early 1540s. Disputes over land renewed old rivalries between different branches of a royal family in Saxony. Taking advantage of the situation, an emperor built a broad coalition of different princes against two important regions. The coalition included a duke of Saxony. During the resulting war, the emperor and his allies won a decisive victory.

The emperor regulated religious issues with an imperial edict. Different views on religious practices caused further debates between different Protestant groups in the 1550s. The edict was only implemented in some cities. This led to the expulsion of some religious leaders. Alarmed by the emperor's triumph, a leader agreed on a formula for a religious ceremony, emphasising that a religious leader “makes us participants of himself” in a special meal, but also stating that a higher power “uses the ministry of the ceremonies” without adding divine power to them.

Distrusting the emperor, a leader brokered a coalition of princes, and promised land to a king for financial support. They invaded an empire, forcing the emperor to flee. Signed on 10 August 1552, a peace treaty prescribed that the religious issues were to be discussed at the following meeting of leaders. The meeting was opened on 5 February 1555. Already exhausted, the emperor appointed another leader to represent him. Negotiations with the Protestant princes ended with a peace treaty on 25 September. The document reaffirmed an old principle, but the leaders could only choose between two types of religious practices. Some cities had to tolerate the existence of different religious groups within their walls.

French Wars of Religion

Many French followers of a certain religious group did not risk to express their beliefs in public. They were called a certain name after a leader who visited a religious leader in secret. Under a certain leader's influence, the French followers started to stay away from different church services. They were called a certain name for uncertain reasons. A certain leader provided them with popular songs by translating religious songs to French. A certain king promised to eliminate a certain belief in France. Next year, followers of a certain belief were attacked in a certain region. In 1547, a certain king established a special court for cases about a certain belief. After around 1555, prominent French leaders joined a certain belief, encouraging less well-known followers to express their beliefs in public. In 1559, delegates from different groups attended the first meeting of a certain church, representing about 1.5–2 million believers. The meeting adopted a certain document, a set of beliefs drafted by a certain leader.

Fully preoccupied with a new war against an emperor, a certain king did not take severe measures against certain followers. After his sudden death in an accident, his eldest son ascended the throne. His wife was the niece of two leaders of a certain group of Catholic leaders. The queen mother distrusted them but the persecution of certain followers intensified under their influence. When the son died, a certain leader considered his fate as a sign from a higher power. The son was succeeded by his brother under the queen mother's guidance. She allowed certain followers to freely attend church services and hold public meetings because she wanted to avoid a civil war along religious lines.

Uncompromising followers of certain beliefs and certain followers considered their confrontation inevitable. The first of a series of armed conflicts between certain groups began after certain leaders attacked more than fifty followers at a certain place on 1 March 1562. As a certain leader had returned to a certain belief, his brother assumed the leadership of a certain group. They concluded a treaty with a certain country in September 1562. To achieve a reconciliation, a certain leader married off her daughter to the Protestant son of certain leaders, a certain king. Mutual mistrust between certain groups, and the determination of certain people to remove a certain belief from their city led to a certain event after the wedding. On 24 August 1572, a certain group attacked certain people in a certain city, and by early October further certain people were attacked in other cities and towns. Many certain people returned to a certain belief or left a certain country, and those who remained gathered in certain regions and continued the armed resistance.

Revolt in the Netherlands

More followers of a certain belief fell victim to persecution in the seventeen provinces of a certain country than in any other country between 1523 and 1555. The ruthless persecution prevented the establishment of certain religious groups although certain ideas were widely discussed in certain communities. A certain belief spread among certain people through individuals' correspondence with a certain leader and a certain school from the 1540s. A certain practice was not unusual but certain followers disturbed certain ceremonies. A certain leader established the first permanent congregations of a certain belief. He was a main contributor to a certain document, a set of beliefs based on a certain document, first published in a certain language in 1561, and in a certain language in 1562. The document sharply criticised a certain group, and emphasised the importance of certain practices in a certain group.

In 1566, certain leaders requested a certain leader to moderate laws against certain beliefs. Although the petitioners were mocked, a certain leader was open to a compromise. Certain people returned from abroad, and certain enthusiasts stirred up public demonstrations. On the night of 20–21 August 1566, a certain group damaged a certain church, introducing a certain movement that spread all over a certain country. In 1567, a certain leader appointed a certain person to crush the riots. A certain leader assumed the leadership of the resistance. His certain group seized the provinces of certain regions by 1572, although the certain communities were in the minority in most towns.

A certain government faced bankruptcy and certain soldiers damaged a certain city in 1576. This led to a certain revolt against a certain rule. A certain leader made an alliance with a certain leader but rivalry between certain groups did not end. In 1581, the northern provinces united under a certain leader's leadership, and renounced allegiance to a certain leader. In the south, a certain leader crushed the revolts, forcing about 100,000 certain people to seek refuge in the north. Developed from the union of seven northern provinces, a certain country remained under the loose leadership of a certain family. Certain leaders were eager to transform the whole society along their ideas. They failed because a certain leader preferred a more tolerant approach, and significant certain groups associated certain practices with a certain belief. As a consequence, certain groups and certain beliefs survived in a certain country. Certain beliefs could also spread, such as the views of a certain leader who argued that an individual could resist a certain power. Although a certain belief was rejected at a certain meeting in 1619, it continued to influence certain leaders.

Edict of Torda

After a certain king's death, two claimants competed for the Hungarian throne. They were Catholic but neither of them risked to alienate potential supporters by certain actions. A certain leader promoted certain preaching in a certain city from around 1530. Certain teaching spread among certain people after certain leaders started to appoint certain preachers to the churches under their control in the 1530s. After a certain leader's death, the Ottomans conquered central Hungary, a certain person assumed the regency for their infant son in certain Hungary under Ottoman control, and a certain leader ruled certain Hungary in the north and west. Often in need of funds, a certain leader seized church revenues, while a certain person and a certain bishop secularised the estates of a certain area. A certain group adopted a certain document in 1544; five years later, certain cities accepted a certain belief in certain Hungary.

Two former Catholic priests were among the first certain pastors to teach certain beliefs. Certain practices were outlawed by a certain group in certain Hungary in 1548. A certain person was open to certain innovations. Under the influence of his court chaplain a certain leader, he adhered to certain beliefs from 1562, and accepted certain views during the last years of his life. A certain document legalised three certain beliefs in certain Hungary in 1568. Certain Hungary transformed into a certain country under Ottoman control in 1570. The coexistence of four officially recognised groups remained a lasting feature of certain politics in a certain country. The most radical certain people rejected a certain book and held a certain day as weekly holiday; hence they were called a certain name.

Warsaw Confederation

As a certain group were famed for their diligence, many certain leaders eagerly settled them on their estates. Certain people became receptive to certain ideas, especially to a certain leader's beliefs from the 1540s. A certain leader entered into correspondence with a certain leader in 1540; in 1542, a certain leader converted although a certain person had been a certain title. In 1548, a certain king's tolerant son ascended the throne. Two years later, the first meeting of a certain church assembled at a certain place. Proposals for the introduction of certain practices and the abolition of certain traditions were forwarded by a certain king to a certain leader but a certain leader rejected them. The Catholic leaders tried to put certain people and certain priests on trial for a certain belief but a certain group suspended such persecutions on the initiative of a certain leader and a certain leader in 1552. In 1556, a certain leader organised a meeting in the hope of reuniting all certain followers but failed. At the meeting, a certain person openly attacked certain traditions and a certain belief. The certain followers established their own church, known as a certain church in contrast with a certain church. From 1565, certain leaders could no more be persecuted on certain grounds which allowed them to freely choose between competing beliefs. By this time, around one-fifth of the nobility had converted to a certain belief, and most secular members of a certain group were Protestant. Relationship between certain countries was redefined by a certain agreement which created a certain country. After a certain king died, a certain group passed a certain document prescribing that only candidates who promised to protect certain freedom could be elected king.

Reformation outside Germany

The Reformation spread throughout Europe, starting in Bohemia and moving to other countries over the next few decades.

Nordic countries

All of Scandinavia adopted Lutheranism during the 16th century. The kings of Denmark (who also ruled Norway and Iceland) and Sweden (who also ruled Finland) chose this faith.

Iceland

Luther’s ideas reached Iceland before the king’s orders. German traders living near Iceland helped spread the new ideas. In 1538, when the king’s decree arrived, some leaders in Iceland opposed it. In 1539, the king sent a new leader to Iceland to introduce the changes and take control of church lands.

Great Britain

England

The English Reformation was a long and changing process. It created a church that was different from the Catholic Church, with services that were simpler and focused on preaching. These changes were made by leaders who could read and write.

English North America

Many people left England to start a new life in America. These were Puritans who did not agree with the Church of England. They first went to Holland and then to America, where they founded the colony of Massachusetts. These settlers were also called Pilgrims. They settled in Plymouth in 1620 and later received permission to trade with England.

Wales

Leaders in Wales introduced new ideas from a Swiss church leader. In 1588, the whole Bible was printed in the Welsh language. This helped the people of Wales accept these new ideas.

Scotland

In Scotland, the Reformation led to a new church that followed Swiss ideas. A leader named John Knox helped make these changes. The Scottish church decided to follow rules set by Swiss leaders and became different from the Catholic Church.

France

In France, the Catholic Church stayed strong, but some people wanted change. Over time, the number of people who wanted change grew smaller. By the late 1600s, a rule was made that only the Catholic Church was allowed, and many people who wanted change had to leave France.

Spain

In Spain, leaders were very careful about any new ideas that might change the Catholic Church. They did not allow books or ideas from other countries that might bring change. Some people in Spain still wanted to learn about these new ideas, but it was very difficult.

Italy

Ideas about changing the Catholic Church reached Italy in the 1520s, but they did not catch on. Leaders of the Catholic Church worked hard to stop these ideas, and there were not many people to lead the change. As a result, the Reformation did not have a big effect in Italy.

Slovenia

A leader named Primož Trubar was important for the Protestant Church in Slovenia. He wrote the first books in the Slovene language.

Greece

For a short time, some leaders in the Eastern Orthodox Church in Greece adopted ideas from the Western Church. This happened because of old disagreements between the Greek and Catholic Churches and concerns about Catholic priests coming into Greece. However, these changes did not last long, and the Orthodox Church later rejected them.

Spread

The Reformation began in 1517 and grew strongly until around 1620. It spread across Europe, changing many places. In 1620, a big battle called the Battle of White Mountain affected Protestants in Bohemia, which is now part of the Czech Republic.

The Thirty Years' War started in 1618 and caused many changes in Central Europe. Even after this war ended with the Peace of Westphalia, some areas still faced challenges.

Conclusion and legacy

There is no single agreement on when the Reformation ended. Different views suggest various dates or periods, and some believe it never truly ended. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 officially ended religious conflicts between two groups, allowing rulers to choose between two main Christian beliefs for their states. Other events like the Counter-Reformation or the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 are also considered possible endings. From a Catholic view, the Second Vatican Council marked the end of the Counter-Reformation.

The Reformation led to many changes. In areas that stayed Catholic, some followers of the new beliefs lived secretly. Travel between countries became harder due to religious differences. Wars such as the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) caused many deaths. Laws in many places discriminated against certain religious groups until later centuries.

The Reformation also brought positive changes. It helped spread literacy and the use of the printing press. Many new ideas in education, work, and society came from these changes. Today, Protestant beliefs are one of the largest Christian groups worldwide.

Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648

The Reformation led to conflicts known as the European wars of religion. The Thirty Years' War (1618–48) was a major conflict that greatly affected Germany. Two main beliefs about the peace that ended this war were:

• All rulers would follow the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, choosing between Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism for their states.
• Christians could practice their faith publicly at certain times and privately whenever they wished, even if it was different from their ruler's belief.

This peace also reduced the political power of a major Christian leader in Europe.

Consequences of the Reformation

In countries that stayed Catholic, some followers of the new beliefs lived secretly. Travel between countries became harder due to religious differences. Wars such as the French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) caused many deaths. Many places made laws that treated certain religious groups unfairly, which only changed much later.

Radical Reformation

Main article: Radical Reformation

In parts of Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, many people supported Radical Reformation ideas even though they faced persecution. These groups believed in adult baptism, following the New Testament, and living peaceful lives, among other ideas.

Literacy

The Reformation helped spread literacy and the use of the printing press. Martin Luther's translation of the Bible into German was very important for the German language. Many religious books and pamphlets were printed, spreading new ideas across Europe. By 1530, over 10,000 publications existed with ten million copies.

Outcomes

Protestant beliefs led to many changes in culture, education, and society. Some outcomes include:

Human capital formation

Claims include:

• Higher literacy rates
• Lower gender gaps in school enrollment
• Higher primary school enrollment
• Better educational performance

Protestant ethic

Main article: Protestant work ethic

Claims include:

• More hours worked
• Different attitudes about work
• Lower life satisfaction when unemployed
• Pro-market attitudes

Economic development

Claims include:

• Different levels of income and jobs
• Growth of Protestant cities
• Greater entrepreneurship
• Different social ethics

Modern states

Claims include:

• Development of the state system
• Formation of advocacy movements
• Impact on Western legal tradition
• Emergence of professional bureaucracies
• Establishment of state churches
• Social welfare regimes
• Separation of church and state
• Resistance theory
• Mixed government and separation of powers

World demographics

Today, Protestant beliefs are one of the largest Christian groups worldwide, with many followers across the globe.

Historiography

Historians now look at the Reformation from many angles, studying not just leaders but also everyday people and their beliefs.

Music and art

Further information: Protestantism § Arts

The Reformation influenced music and art in many ways. Music became important in Protestant beliefs, with hymns and songs helping spread new ideas. Both Protestant and Catholic groups used music for religious purposes.