Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Romance of the Three Kingdoms (traditional Chinese: 三國演義; simplified Chinese: 三国演义; pinyin: Sānguó Yǎnyì) is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It tells the story of a time long ago, during the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period. This time was full of change and conflict, starting with the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 AD and ending when the Western Jin dynasty brought China together again in 280.

The book mixes real history with exciting stories. It focuses on three big groups that fought for power after the Han dynasty fell. These groups were Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The story shows their battles, clever plans, and the ways they tried to beat each other for almost 100 years.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms is considered one of the greatest books ever written in Chinese literature. It has 800,000 words and almost 1,000 characters in 120 chapters. Many people in East Asia love this book, and it is often compared to the works of Shakespeare in English literature. It is also very well known in Southeast Asia, and many of its characters are famous there. Some say it is the most popular historical book in China.

Origins and versions

Stories about brave heroes from the Three Kingdoms period were popular entertainment during the Sui and Tang dynasties (6th–10th centuries). By the Song dynasty (10th–13th centuries), there were storytellers who shared tales about these heroes. The earliest book to collect these stories was called Sanguozhi Pinghua and was published between 1321 and 1323.

The book Romance of the Three Kingdoms is often said to be written by Luo Guanzhong, a playwright from the late Yuan to early Ming period (around 1315–1400). It was first printed in 1522 as Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi. The story uses historical records, mainly the Records of the Three Kingdoms written by Chen Shou in the 3rd century. These records cover events from the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 to the unification under the Jin dynasty in 280.

The version most people know today was edited by Mao Lun and his son Mao Zonggang. They shortened the story to 120 chapters and changed some parts to improve the flow. They also added famous opening lines and a special poem to begin the book. Different editions of the book included illustrations of scenes, showing important moments and characters in the story.

Plot

The story takes place during the end of the Han dynasty in China, a time when the government was full of corruption and power struggles. Many local leaders, called warlords, had their own armies and fought for control. The people suffered greatly during this time, leading to the Yellow Turban Rebellion led by Zhang Jiao and his brothers.

Three Heroes of Three Kingdoms, silk painting by Sekkan Sakurai (1715–1790), depicting Liu Bei, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei.

The rebellion was stopped by the general He Jin, but after the death of Emperor Ling, He Jin was killed by court eunuchs known as the Ten Attendants. This led to more chaos and the rise of Dong Zhuo, a powerful warlord who took control of the capital, Luoyang. Dong Zhuo ruled harshly, and there were attempts to stop him, including one by Cao Cao.

Cao Cao gathered other warlords to fight Dong Zhuo, but after Dong Zhuo was killed, the country fell into civil war as different warlords fought for power. Sun Jian found a special imperial seal and later his son, Sun Ce, founded the state of Eastern Wu. Liu Bei, along with his friends Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, wanted to help the people but faced many challenges and battles.

Illustration from a 1591 edition of the novel: "Fengyi Pavilion, Lü Bu, Diaochan". Diaochan flirts with Lü Bu as Dong Zhuo watches from behind a tree

After Dong Zhuo’s rule, Cao Cao became very powerful and fought against other warlords like Yuan Shao. In a big battle called Guandu, Cao Cao won against Yuan Shao, gaining control of northern China. Liu Bei joined forces with Zhuge Liang and later formed an alliance with Sun Quan to fight Cao Cao in the Battle of Red Cliffs, where they won a major victory.

Liu Bei then moved to take control of Yi Province, founding the state of Shu Han. However, tensions grew between Liu Bei and Sun Quan. Guan Yu was captured and killed by Sun Quan’s forces while trying to defend Liu Bei’s territories.

Liu Bei recruiting Zhuge Liang, from Visiting the Thatched Hut Three Times, a Ming dynasty painting by Dai Jin (1388–1462).

Liu Bei tried to get back the lost territories but was defeated badly in the Battle of Yiling by Sun Quan’s general Lu Xun. Liu Bei died soon after from illness.

After Liu Bei’s death, Zhuge Liang led Shu Han. He made peace with Sun Quan and led successful campaigns against southern tribes. Zhuge Liang also planned several attacks against the Wei but faced many obstacles and died during a battle at Wuzhang Plains.

Over time, the rulers of Wei, Shu, and Wu changed, and internal conflicts weakened them. Eventually, the Jin dynasty conquered both Wei and Wu, ending the long period of fighting known as the Three Kingdoms.

Historical accuracy

The book is based on Chen Shou's Records of the Three Kingdoms, with other influences like Liu Yiqing's A New Account of the Tales of the World and the Sanguozhi Pinghua.

While some parts are made up from old stories and the author's ideas, the book tries to show what life was like during the Three Kingdoms period. Even when the events are not true, they feel real. The book focuses more on history than older plays did, though it still shows some bias toward southern China.

Liu Bei and his friends are shown in a good light, while Cao Cao and Sun Quan are often shown less favorably, which matched the views of the time the book was written.

Literary analysis

The book Romance of the Three Kingdoms tells its stories in a special way. It connects different tales about the three kingdoms like strands of a rope. This helps show how the stories relate to each other.

One big change in the book is how it tells about Zhuge Liang’s southern campaign. The real history describes this as one short event. But in the book, it becomes a long story with seven battles. This shows how hard Zhuge worked to bring back the Han Dynasty.

Illustration from a 1591 edition of the novel, "Peach Garden Oath of Brotherhood", depicting the heroes with a black bull and white horse sacrificed in the ceremony.

The book also mixes poems and stories. Poems sometimes repeat what the story says, or they ask questions about it. They also help summarize what happened and lead into the next part of the story.

The book shows how different characters’ stories connect. For example, one chapter tells two stories at once. One is about Liu Bei trying to punish two generals, and the other is about Cao Pi trying to have his brother Cao Zhi killed. The poems in this chapter help link these stories together.

The book also explores big ideas like the rise and fall of leaders, the conflict between good and bad choices, and the problems of government. It shows that even the best characters must make hard choices in a world that cycles between unity and division.

Cultural impact

The novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms has had a big effect on culture. Many Chinese sayings we use today come from the story. The way it was written helped create a new style of writing during the Ming period.

Illustration from a 1591 edition of the novel: "On Jade Spring Mountain, Lord Guan reveals his sanctity" which depicts the apparition of Lord Guan [left, mounted on Red Hare] appearing to Monk Pujing [with deer tail whisk].

The book also mixes in some ideas from Buddhism. For example, one of the main characters, Guan Yu, became respected like a holy figure in Buddhist tradition.

The story has been told again and again in many different ways, like TV shows, comics, video games, and more. Some young fans, especially young women, write their own stories based on the book. These stories often focus on relationships between the characters and explore ideas not in the original book.

Translation	Chinese	Interpretation
Brothers are like limbs, wives and children are like clothing. Torn clothing can be repaired; how can broken limbs be mended?	simplified Chinese: 兄弟如手足，妻子如衣服。衣服破，尚可缝；手足断，安可续？; traditional Chinese: 兄弟如手足，妻子如衣服。衣服破，尚可縫；手足斷，安可續？	It means that wives and children, like clothing, are replaceable if lost but the same does not hold true for one's brothers (or friends).
Liu Bei "borrows" Jing Province – borrowing without returning.	simplified Chinese: 刘备借荆州——有借无还; traditional Chinese: 劉備借荆州——有借無還 simplified Chinese: 刘备借荆州，一借无回头; traditional Chinese: 劉備借荆州，一借無回頭	This proverb describes the situation of a person borrowing something without the intention of returning it.
Speak of Cao Cao and Cao Cao arrives.	simplified Chinese: 说曹操，曹操到; traditional Chinese: 說曹操，曹操到 simplified Chinese: 说曹操曹操就到; traditional Chinese: 說曹操曹操就到	Equivalent to speak of the devil. Describes the situation of a person appearing precisely when being spoken about.
Three reeking tanners [or cobblers] (are enough to) overcome one Zhuge Liang.	simplified Chinese: 三个臭皮匠，胜过一个诸葛亮; traditional Chinese: 三個臭皮匠，勝過一個諸葛亮 simplified Chinese: 三个臭皮匠，赛过一个诸葛亮; traditional Chinese: 三個臭皮匠，賽過一個諸葛亮 simplified Chinese: 三个臭裨将，顶个诸葛亮; traditional Chinese: 三个臭裨将，頂個諸葛亮	This proverb expresses the idea that the collaboration of people working together maybe more effective than one intelligent person working alone. One variation is "subordinate generals" (simplified Chinese: 裨将; traditional Chinese: 裨將; píjiàng) instead of "tanners" (皮匠; píjiàng).
Eastern Wu arranges a false marriage that turns into a real one.	simplified Chinese: 东吴招亲——弄假成真; traditional Chinese: 東吳招親——弄假成真	When a plan to falsely offer something backfires with the result that the thing originally offered is appropriated by the intended victim of the hoax.
Losing the lady and crippling the army.	simplified Chinese: 周郎妙计安天下，赔了夫人又折兵; traditional Chinese: 周郎妙計安天下，賠了夫人又折兵	The "lady" lost here was actually Sun Quan's sister Lady Sun. Zhou Yu's plan to capture Liu Bei by means of a false marriage proposal failed and Lady Sun really became Liu's wife (see above). Zhou Yu later led his troops in an attempt to attack Liu Bei but fell into an ambush and suffered a crushing defeat. This saying is now used to describe situations where schemers makes a fools of themselves and suffer double losses.
Every person on the street knows what is in Sima Zhao's mind.	simplified Chinese: 司马昭之心，路人皆知; traditional Chinese: 司馬昭之心，路人皆知	As Sima Zhao gradually rose to power in Wei, his intention to usurp state power became more obvious. The young Wei emperor Cao Mao once lamented to his loyal ministers, "Every person on the street knows what is in Sima Zhao's mind (that he wanted to usurp the throne)." This saying is now used to describe a situation where a person's ill-intention is obvious.
The young should not read Water Margin, and the old should not read Three Kingdoms.^: 218	simplified Chinese: 少不读水浒, 老不读三国; traditional Chinese: 少不讀水滸, 老不讀三國	The former depicts the lives of heroic outlaws and their defiance of the corrupted government system but results in bittersweet tragedy. The latter presents dynasties that came and go which reminds the old that nothing is permanent.

Translations

Manchu

The Jurchen chieftain Nurhaci loved reading Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin. He learned about Chinese military and political strategies from these books. When his descendants founded the Qing dynasty and ruled China, this book was one of the first Chinese books translated into the Manchu language, along with military manuals. It was one of only two Chinese novels printed in Manchu during the Qing dynasty.

Rental copy of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Vol. 1, 1906: cover with binding and first page. Handwritten in vernacular Korean.

A Manchu translation of the Romance, called Ilan gurun-i bithe, was first tried in 1631 by scholar Dahai, but he passed away before finishing it. A complete translation was done in 1647 and published in 1650 by a team of officials, including Kicungge and Fan Wencheng, under the prince-regent Dorgon. This was the first known translation of the Romance in any language.

The Manchu version was later translated into several other languages, including Xibe, Mongolian, Korean, Tibetan, and French. The French translation, San-koué-tchy (Ilan kouroun-i pithé): Histoire des Trois Royaumes, was started by Théodore Pavie but only two volumes were published.

Korean

The True Story of Zhang Fei and Ma Chao Guangdong Bookstore, Beijing, 1919: cover and first page. Printed in vernacular Korean with metal type.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms is very popular in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. In Korea, it is often called the "national novel." It has been changed to match Korean culture over time.

The original historical record Records of the Three Kingdoms was brought to Korea. During the Joseon dynasty, people loved the novel, reading it from hand-written copies and printed books. Some versions, called Ttakchibon, told only parts of the story but made heroes like Zhang Fei and Ma Chao even stronger.

Some scholars did not like the novel because they thought it was not historically accurate. However, after wars with Japan and the Qing dynasty, the novel became very popular with all people who could read.

Modern translations began during Japanese rule. Eiji Yoshikawa translated it in Japan and Korea, and Yi Mun-yol translated it in Korean in 1988. Yi’s version has sold over 20 million copies, making it Korea’s best-selling novel ever.

English

Romance of the Three Kingdoms has been translated into English many times.

The first known translation was in 1907 by John G. Steele, who translated one chapter for students in China learning English. Other early translations appeared in journals.

In 1976, Moss Roberts published an abridged version, including about a quarter of the original story, with maps and illustrations. In 2018, Martin Palmer published another abridged version for Penguin Classics, covering all chapters but summarizing some parts.

A complete translation was done in 1925 by Charles Henry Brewitt-Taylor. Moss Roberts also published a full translation in 1991 with many helpful notes and maps. In 2014, Tuttle published a new three-volume translation by Yu Sumei.