Second Punic War

The Second Punic War (218–201 BC) was a big fight between Carthage and Rome. These two powerful places wanted to be the strongest in the western Mediterranean during the 3rd century BC. They battled for 17 years in many places, like Italy, Iberia, Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa.

It all started after the First Punic War, which Rome won in 241 BC. Soon after, a leader named Hannibal from Carthage attacked a city called Saguntum in 219 BC. This made Rome very angry, and they declared war on Carthage in 218 BC, starting the Second Punic War. Hannibal did something very surprising: he marched his army over land from Iberia, through Gaul, and over the Alps to Cisalpine Gaul, which is in modern northern Italy.

Hannibal won many big battles against the Romans, like at Trebia, Lake Trasimene, and the famous battle of Cannae. At Cannae, Hannibal defeated the biggest Roman army ever. Many of Rome’s friends in Italy decided to help Carthage after this. But Rome didn’t give up. They found new ways to get soldiers, even using people who normally couldn’t fight.

The war moved to other places too. In Iberia, a Roman leader named Publius Scipio captured important cities and pushed back the Carthaginians. Finally, Scipio went to Africa in 204 BC. This made Carthage call Hannibal back from Italy. The last big battle happened at Zama in 202 BC, where Hannibal lost to Scipio.

After this, Carthage had to make a peace treaty with Rome. They lost many lands and had to pay a big amount of money for many years. From then on, Carthage could not fight wars without Rome’s permission. This war showed that Rome was now the stronger power, and it led to another war later called the Third Punic War.

Primary sources

The main source for learning about the Second Punic War is the writer Polybius, a Greek who lived around the same time as the war. He wrote a book called The Histories and tried to tell the story fairly, talking to people who were there. We still use his work even though some parts are missing.

When Polybius’s writing isn’t available, many historians turn to Livy, another writer from Rome. Livy based much of his story on Polybius but added more details about Roman leaders. However, his stories about battles are sometimes not completely accurate. Other writers like Diodorus Siculus and Cassius Dio also wrote about the war, but their work is not as complete. We also learn from things like old coins, writings carved in stone, and archaeological finds.

Opposing forces

Main articles: Roman army of the mid-Republic and Military of Carthage

Most Roman men could be called to fight in wars. They usually fought as foot soldiers, but richer men rode horses. Rome would gather four groups of soldiers, called legions, each with about 4,200 foot soldiers and 300 horse soldiers. Some of these soldiers were lighter armed and threw spears from far away, while others had heavy armor and swords for close fighting. Rome's leaders chose two main generals each year, called consuls, to lead armies in battles.

Carthage often used soldiers from other places. From North Africa, they had many types of fighters, including foot soldiers with spears, light soldiers who threw javelins, and different kinds of horse soldiers. Some of these fighters used captured Roman weapons. Soldiers from places like Iberia and Gaul were also important, known for their fierce fighting but sometimes giving up if the battle went on too long. Carthage also used war elephants and sometimes sailors, but their navy didn't fight much, so Rome had more control at sea.

Background

The Roman Republic had been growing stronger in southern Italy for about a hundred years. By 270 BC, they had taken control of most of the area south of the Arno River. Meanwhile, Carthage, a powerful city in what is now Tunisia, controlled parts of Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal), North Africa, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, and western Sicily.

Both Rome and Carthage were major powers in the western Mediterranean. They had friendly relations and strong trade links, but their different ways of dealing with nearby lands eventually led to conflict. The First Punic War began in 264 BC over control of the city of Messana in Sicily. After a long and tough fight, Carthage was defeated in 241 BC and lost Sicily to Rome. Later, Rome took Sardinia and Corsica from Carthage while it was dealing with internal uprisings.

To rebuild its strength, Carthage turned to Iberia. Under leaders like Hamilcar Barca and his family, they created a strong base there with rich resources and new military power. In 226 BC, an agreement set the Ebro River as the boundary between Roman and Carthaginian lands. However, in 219 BC, Hannibal, leading the Carthaginian forces, captured the city of Saguntum, which was allied with Rome. This action led Rome to declare war on Carthage in 218 BC, starting the Second Punic War.

Italy

Hannibal crosses the Alps, 218 BC

Main article: Hannibal's crossing of the Alps

In 218 BC, there were naval battles near Sicily. The Romans stopped a Carthaginian attack and took over the island of Malta. In northern Italy, Gallic tribes attacked Roman settlements, forcing them to flee to Mutina (modern Modena), where they were under siege. A Roman relief force broke the siege but was later ambushed and trapped. A Roman army meant for Iberia had one legion taken to help in northern Italy, delaying its departure. Meanwhile, a Roman army in Sicily prepared to invade Africa.

Hannibal gathered a Carthaginian army and moved north along the coast of Iberia. He entered Gaul and took an inland route to avoid Roman allies. At the Rhône Crossing, Hannibal defeated local Gauls trying to stop him. A Roman fleet landed at Massalia (modern Marseille), but Hannibal avoided them and continued to Italy.

The Carthaginians reached the Alps by late autumn and crossed them in 15 days, facing harsh weather, difficult terrain, and attacks by local Ligurians. Hannibal arrived in northern Italy with 20,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and some elephants in November. The Romans were already in winter quarters, so Hannibal’s surprise arrival changed Rome’s plans for the year, canceling their planned invasion of Africa.

Carthaginian victories, 218–216 BC

After arriving in Italy, the Carthaginians captured the city of Taurini (near modern Turin) and took its food supplies. In late November 218 BC, Carthaginian cavalry defeated Roman cavalry and light infantry at the battle of Ticinus. This led many Gallic tribes to support Carthage, increasing Hannibal’s army to over 40,000 men. The Romans abandoned their plan to invade Africa and sent their forces north to face Hannibal. The combined Roman army was lured into battle by Hannibal at the Trebia, where the Carthaginians surrounded them, and only 10,000 of the 40,000 Romans escaped.

Rome was shocked by the defeat but recovered under Sempronius, who organized new legions, reinforced Sardinia and Sicily, and built supply depots. Two large Roman armies were formed and positioned to block Hannibal’s advance.

In early spring 217 BC, the Carthaginians crossed the Apennines unopposed. Hannibal tricked the Roman army under Gaius Flaminius into pursuing him and ambushed them at Lake Trasimene, killing 15,000 Romans, including Flaminius. A Roman cavalry force was also destroyed at the battle of Umbrian Lake. The prisoners were treated harshly if they were Romans, but Latin allies were treated well by the Carthaginians, hoping to win them over.

Hannibal continued through Etruria, Umbria, and Apulia, hoping to gain support from Greek and Italic cities in southern Italy. Rome panic-stricken, elected Quintus Fabius Maximus as dictator, who adopted a strategy of avoiding direct battles and wearing Hannibal down. This strategy was unpopular, as it did not quickly end the war.

In 216 BC, Hannibal seized the supply depot at Cannae. The Romans raised a huge army of 86,000 men, the largest up to that time. At the battle of Cannae, Hannibal’s forces surrounded the Romans, leading to the deaths or captures of at least 67,500 Romans. This was one of Rome’s worst military disasters.

Roman allies defect, 216–214 BC

Several city states in southern Italy joined Hannibal or were taken over. These included Capua and the port city of Tarentum (modern Taranto). Two Samnite tribes also supported Carthage. By 214 BC, much of southern Italy had turned against Rome, though many central Italian allies remained loyal. Hannibal struggled to defend these new allies against Roman attacks.

Hannibal’s greatest success was in Capua, Italy’s second-largest city. The people of Capua, tempted by the possibility of becoming the leading city after Rome’s defeats, made an agreement with Hannibal. When the port city of Locri defected to Carthage in 215 BC, it was used to send soldiers, supplies, and war elephants to Hannibal. A second force under Hannibal’s brother Mago was meant to land in Italy but was redirected to Iberia.

The Romans responded by enlisting slaves, criminals, and others to build up their armies. By 215 BC, they had at least 12 legions, growing to 18 by 214 BC and 22 by 213 BC. These forces were not strong enough to challenge Hannibal directly but harried his movements and tried to recapture allied cities.

Macedonia, Sardinia and Sicily

In 215 BC, the Macedonian king Philip V agreed to support Hannibal, starting the First Macedonian War against Rome. Rome was worried the Macedonians would attack Italy but reinforced their navy and sent a legion to guard against this. The threat faded when Rome allied with the Aetolian League, ending the war in 205 BC with a negotiated peace.

A rebellion in support of Carthage broke out on Sardinia in 213 BC but was quickly crushed by the Romans.

Before 215 BC, Sicily was firmly under Roman control. After the death of Hiero II, his successor Hieronymus switched allegiance to Carthage. However, the Syracusan army was no match for a Roman force led by Claudius Marcellus, and Syracuse was besieged by spring 213 BC. The city’s strong defenses and inventions by Archimedes made the siege difficult. In 212 BC, the Romans captured Syracuse in a night attack. Archimedes was killed during the takeover.

A large Carthaginian army was sent to relieve Syracuse in 213 BC, and several Sicilian cities switched sides. However, the Carthaginian army was weakened by disease. In 211 BC, Rome captured the main Carthaginian stronghold in Sicily, Agrigentum, after it was betrayed by a discontented officer. The remaining Carthaginian-held towns surrendered or were taken by force, restoring Sicily’s grain supply to Rome.

Italy, 213–208 BC

For 11 years after Cannae, the war moved around southern Italy as cities switched sides or were retaken by Rome. Hannibal often defeated Roman armies, but Rome kept attacking Carthaginian-supported towns or fighting Carthaginian forces whenever they could. By 208 BC, many cities that had joined Carthage returned to Rome.

Fabius captured the town of Arpi in 213 BC. In 212 BC, Hannibal defeated a Roman army at the battle of the Silarus and later at Herdonia, losing 16,000 men from an 18,000-strong force. Despite these losses, the Romans besieged Capua, Hannibal’s key ally in Italy. Hannibal tried to help but failed to break the siege. In 211 BC, Hannibal again tried to help but failed. He then marched towards Rome, hoping to force the Romans to abandon the siege, but they stayed, and Capua fell soon after. The city lost its self-government and was placed under Roman control.

In 210 BC, the Carthaginians ambushed a Roman army near Herdonia, defeating it. Hannibal fought an unclear battle at Numistro, and later at Canusium in 209 BC, where the Romans suffered heavy losses. This allowed another Roman army to capture Tarentum through treachery.

Italy, 207–203 BC

In 207 BC, Hannibal’s brother Hasdrubal led an army across the Alps into northern Italy to join Hannibal. However, the Romans tricked Hannibal into thinking their whole army was in the south while a large part marched north. The combined Roman forces attacked and destroyed Hasdrubal’s army at the battle of the Metaurus, killing him. This confirmed Roman control in Italy and ended their strategy of avoiding battle. Hannibal’s forces had to leave allied towns and retreat to Bruttium.

In 205 BC, another of Hannibal’s brothers, Mago, landed in northwest Italy with an army. He was later defeated at the battle of Insubria in 203 BC.

After a Roman invasion of Carthage in 204 BC and the defeat of Carthaginian forces in North Africa, Hannibal and his army were recalled from Italy. They sailed from Croton and landed at Carthage with 15,000–20,000 veterans. Mago was also recalled but died during the journey, though some of his troops reached Carthage.

Iberia

Iberia 218–211 BC

In 218 BC, the Romans landed in north-east Iberia and gained support from local tribes. This blocked the path for Carthaginian reinforcements to reach Hannibal in Italy. A Carthaginian attack was stopped at the battle of Cissa. In 217 BC, Carthaginian and Iberian ships were defeated by Roman and Massalian ships at the battle of Ebro River.

Hasdrubal, a Carthaginian leader, was ordered to move into Italy to help Hannibal but argued it was too risky. In 215 BC, he attacked a town supporting Rome and fought a battle at Dertosa. The Romans won this battle, making it impossible for Hasdrubal to join Hannibal.

The Carthaginians lost support from local Celtiberian tribes, who switched to Rome. The Romans captured the town of Saguntum in 212 BC and hired Celtiberian mercenaries. In 211 BC, the Romans faced two big battles called the battle of the Upper Baetis and were defeated because their mercenaries deserted. The remaining Romans retreated to a coastal town, but were reinforced in 210 BC.

Iberia, 211–205 BC

In 210 BC, Publius Cornelius Scipio arrived in Iberia with more Roman soldiers. In 209 BC, he captured New Carthage, the main Carthaginian city in Iberia, taking lots of gold and silver. He freed the people captured there.

In 208 BC, Hasdrubal fought Scipio at the battle of Baecula. The Carthaginians lost but Hasdrubal escaped with most of his army and moved into Gaul. In 207 BC, he tried to join Hannibal in Italy but was defeated.

In 206 BC, Scipio defeated the Carthaginians at the battle of Ilipa, ending their control in Iberia. The last Carthaginian city, Gades, switched to Rome. Later that year, some Roman soldiers rebelled but Scipio stopped it. In 205 BC, an attempt to retake New Carthage failed. In 203 BC, Carthage still managed to hire some soldiers from Iberia.

Africa

Africa, 213–206 BC

In 213 BC, Syphax, a powerful king in North Africa, chose to support Rome. In response, Carthage sent troops from Spain to North Africa. By 206 BC, Carthage made peace with Syphax by dividing several Numidian kingdoms, but this left one prince, Masinissa, without a kingdom. As a result, Masinissa joined forces with Rome.

Roman invasion of Africa, 204–201 BC

Main article: Roman invasion of Africa (204–201 BC)

In 205 BC, Publius Scipio was given command of Roman forces in Sicily and prepared to invade Africa to end the war. After landing in Africa in 204 BC, he was joined by Masinissa and Numidian cavalry. Scipio fought and defeated two large Carthaginian armies. After the second battle, Masinissa captured Syphax and took control of most of his kingdom with Roman support.

Rome and Carthage began peace talks, but Carthage broke the agreement after Hannibal arrived from Italy. Hannibal led a new army in Africa, but in the decisive battle of Zama in October 202 BC, the Romans, with more cavalry, defeated the Carthaginians. Hannibal used elephants, but they turned against their own troops. The Roman cavalry then attacked the Carthaginian rear, leading to a Carthaginian defeat. Hannibal was one of the few to escape.

Roman victory

Further information: Third Punic War

After the war ended, Rome made strict rules for Carthage. Carthage lost all its lands outside Africa and had to pay a large amount of money to Rome for many years. They were not allowed to have war elephants or many ships and could not fight wars without Rome’s permission. Even though some leaders in Carthage wanted to refuse these rules, Hannibal helped them accept the treaty in 201 BC. From then on, Carthage had to follow Rome’s orders.

Rome’s friend, King Masinissa of Numidia, often took land from Carthage because the rules stopped Carthage from defending itself. Many years later, Carthage tried to fight back but lost badly. This gave Rome an excuse to start the Third Punic War. Rome attacked Carthage, destroyed the city, and took control of its lands. It took a long time before Carthage was rebuilt as a Roman city.

triumph and received the agnomen "Africanus".

Hasdrubal and the battle of Oroscopa. The Third Punic War began later in 149 BC when a large Roman army landed in North Africa and besieged Carthage. The Roman province of Africa was formed and the site of Carthage was rebuilt as a Roman city.

Notes, citations and sources

This section contains references and sources used in the article. It includes citations and notes that support the information provided about the Second Punic War. These references help verify the facts and details mentioned throughout the article.