Spanish–American War

The Spanish–American War (April 21 – August 13, 1898) was fought between Spain and the United States in 1898. It began with the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor in Cuba, and resulted in the U.S. acquiring sovereignty over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, and establishing a protectorate over Cuba. This war ended almost four centuries of Spanish presence in many parts of the world, and the United States became a major world power, gaining several island possessions.

In the late 1800s, Cuba was fighting for independence from Spanish rule. Stories in American newspapers, called yellow journalism, often exaggerated the difficulties in Cuba to attract readers. This helped change many Americans' views to support the Cuban rebels. After the USS Maine sank in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, pressure grew for the U.S. to act. Eventually, the U.S. and Spain declared war.

The war happened in both the Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean. One important moment was on May 1, when U.S. ships destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay in the Philippines. U.S. troops also fought in Cuba, leading to the capture of Santiago de Cuba. The war ended with the 1898 Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10. This treaty let the U.S. take control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, and set Cuba on a path to independence, though it remained closely tied to the U.S. for many years.

Historical background

Spain's attitude towards its colonies

Spain faced many challenges that weakened its control over its colonies. These included wars in Europe and the loss of many colonies in the Americas. Some leaders in Spain believed their rule was kind compared to other European countries. They felt it was important to keep ties with places like Cuba, which had been under Spanish control for a long time. However, these ideas would later hurt Spain's pride when the Spanish–American War ended.

American interest in the Caribbean

In 1823, President James Monroe said the United States would not allow European countries to take back control of places in the Americas. After the American Civil War, U.S. businesses became very interested in Cuba, buying most of its sugar and other goods. The U.S. also wanted to build a canal across Central America and needed a strong navy to protect its interests. Leaders like Theodore Roosevelt supported going to war with Spain to help Cuba. Groups in the U.S. raised money and support for Cuba’s fight for independence, gaining many people’s backing, though some business leaders wanted peace instead.

Cuba got a lot of attention from the U.S., but other Spanish colonies like Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam were not discussed much. Most Americans did not want the U.S. to build a big empire overseas.

Path to war

Cuban struggle for independence

The first big attempt by Cuba to be free from Spain was called the Ten Years' War. It started in 1868 and ended when Spain stopped it ten years later. Even after a peace agreement in 1878, some people in Cuba still wanted to be completely independent. One leader, José Martí, kept working for Cuba’s freedom from far away. In 1895, Martí started a big plan to invade Cuba from three places: the Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, and the United States. The plan was to start a big fight, but it didn’t go as expected. The fighters had to change their plan and start a longer guerrilla war instead.

Spain sent General Valeriano Weyler to stop the fighting. He made people in some areas move to special zones near military bases. This made it harder for the fighters to get supplies. In the United States, people started to speak badly about Spain because of these actions.

Spanish attitude

Spain really wanted to keep control of Cuba because it was important for trade and pride. The leader of Spain said the country would fight to keep every piece of its land. However, the leader was later killed by someone, and Spain’s government became less stable.

US response

In the United States, many people felt sorry for the people in Cuba and thought Spain was treating them very badly. Some newspaper writers in New York City wrote very strong stories about Spain, which made more people angry. The United States also had business reasons to want peace in Cuba because trade was suffering.

President William McKinley tried to talk to Spain to find a peaceful solution, but Spain didn’t agree to talk. In February 1898, a big explosion sank the USS Maine ship in Havana harbor. Many people on the ship were hurt or lost their lives. Many Americans blamed Spain for the explosion, and this made war more likely.

USS Maine dispatch to Havana and loss

President McKinley sent the USS Maine to Havana to watch out for American people and to show that Spain needed to make changes. The ship sank after a big explosion on February 15, 1898, and many sailors were lost. This event made the United States very upset with Spain.

Declaring war

After the USS Maine sank, some newspaper writers said Spain was to blame. People in the United States felt strongly that something needed to be done. Even though many business leaders didn’t want war, public feeling grew stronger for action.

On April 20, 1898, the United States told Spain it would help Cuba become independent. Spain stopped talking to the United States on April 21. On April 25, the United States officially said war had begun.

Historiography

Most people at the time and many historians believe that the United States decided to go to war mainly because they felt it was the right thing to do to help the people of Cuba. President McKinley said the U.S. had a duty to help. Some later historians have argued that the public was pushed toward war by strong opinions in newspapers and political leaders. Others feel the war was necessary to stop the suffering in Cuba.

Pacific theater

Philippines

See also: Philippine Revolution

For over 300 years, Spain ruled the Philippines. By the 1800s, ideas from Europe inspired local leaders to want change. One leader, José Rizal, pushed for reforms. This led to the Philippine Revolution against Spanish rule. In 1897, leaders agreed to a truce and left the country.

When war broke out between the United States and Spain in 1898, American ships moved toward the Philippines. On May 1, Commodore George Dewey led a quick victory at Manila Bay, defeating the Spanish fleet with very few losses.

After this win, Filipino leaders like Emilio Aguinaldo worked with American forces to fight the Spanish. By June, Filipino forces controlled many areas and declared independence on June 12. American troops arrived in June to help.

On August 13, American forces captured Manila from the Spanish. However, the Americans stopped Filipino forces from entering the city, which made many Filipinos unhappy. This led to more conflict between the United States and Filipino leaders.

Guam

Main article: Capture of Guam

On June 20, 1898, the American ship USS Charleston arrived at Guam. Captain Henry Glass informed local leaders that war had begun between the United States and Spain. The next day, the Spanish governor agreed to surrender Guam without a fight. The Spanish soldiers were taken prisoner and sent to the Philippines. No American soldiers stayed on the island at that time.

Caribbean theater

Cuba

See also: San Juan Hill order of battle and El Caney order of battle

Theodore Roosevelt wanted the United States to help the Cuban people and support the Monroe Doctrine. As Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he prepared the Navy for war and helped form a volunteer regiment called the "Rough Riders" led by Leonard Wood.

The U.S. aimed to defeat Spanish forces in Cuba, capture the port city of Santiago de Cuba, and destroy the Spanish navy there. To reach Santiago, U.S. troops had to pass through strong Spanish defenses. They were helped by Cuban rebels led by General Calixto García.

Cuban sentiment

For a long time, Cubans believed the United States might help them gain independence from Spain. Many Cubans supported involving the U.S. in their fight for freedom, even though they were cautious about U.S. intentions. The strong support from American citizens gave Cubans hope that the U.S. would help them.

Action at Cienfuegos

The first fight between U.S. and Spanish forces happened on May 11, 1898, near Cienfuegos. U.S. ships tried to cut undersea cables to stop Spain from communicating with Cuba. They faced heavy Spanish fire but managed to cut two of the three cables, disrupting communications and boosting U.S. morale.

Land campaign

U.S. troops first landed in Cuba on June 10, 1898, at Guantánamo Bay. More troops landed near Santiago on June 22–24. On June 24, U.S. forces fought Spanish troops at Las Guasimas. The battle ended with Spain retreating.

On July 1, U.S. troops, including the "Rough Riders," attacked Spanish forces at El Caney and San Juan Hill. Over 200 U.S. soldiers were killed or wounded, but they succeeded. Spanish forces later withdrew from Santiago.

Battle of Tayacoba

On June 29, U.S. and Cuban forces tried to land near Cienfuegos but were stopped by Spanish fire. They succeeded in landing further east and joined Cuban forces.

Naval operations

The U.S. targeted Santiago de Cuba's port. The U.S. fleet needed a safe harbor, so they used Guantánamo Bay. On July 3, the U.S. destroyed most of the Spanish fleet trying to leave Santiago harbor.

U.S. withdrawal

Yellow fever spread among U.S. troops in Cuba, making many sick. By August 7, the U.S. began leaving Cuba, though some troops stayed to support the occupation.

Puerto Rico

Main article: Puerto Rico campaign

On May 12, 1898, U.S. ships attacked San Juan, Puerto Rico, and set up a blockade. Land battles began on July 25 when U.S. troops landed at Guánica. They faced resistance in several battles, including Yauco, Fajardo, Guayama, and Asomante. All fighting stopped on August 13 when Spain agreed to give up Puerto Rico.

Cámara's squadron

After the Spanish–American War began in April 1898, Spain sent part of its navy to Cádiz in southern Spain. This group, led by Rear Admiral Manuel de la Cámara y Livermoore, included two of Spain’s strongest ships: the battleship Pelayo and the armored cruiser Emperador Carlos V. These ships had not been ready at the start of the war but were quickly put into service. Their job was to protect the Spanish coast from any attacks by the U.S. Navy, though no such attacks happened.

While this Spanish squadron stayed at Cádiz, U.S. ships defeated another Spanish fleet in the Philippines on May 1 and trapped a different Spanish fleet in Cuba on May 27. Later, Spain planned to send Cámara’s ships to the Philippines to help there, but changed their minds. Eventually, the squadron was ordered to leave for the Philippines to support Spanish troops, but after learning that U.S. ships had defeated another Spanish fleet in Cuba, Spain called the squadron back to protect its own coast. The ships returned to Spain without fighting in any battles during the war.

Making peace

Spain asked for peace after losing battles in Cuba and the Philippines, where their fleets were destroyed. Talks began between the two countries.

Fighting stopped on August 12, 1898, when a peace agreement was signed in Washington. After more talks, the Treaty of Paris was signed on December 10, 1898. This treaty let the United States take over Spain's colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. Cuba became a place protected by the United States. The treaty became official in Cuba on April 11, 1899. Cuba started its own government and became independent on May 20, 1902, though the United States kept some control over the island. The United States also leased Guantánamo Bay permanently.

Medical disaster

The Spanish–American War was very hard on soldiers because of sickness. Even though not many soldiers were hurt in battles, many got very sick. The biggest problem was a sickness called typhoid fever that spread in the military camps.

Typhoid fever made many soldiers very ill. It was the main reason soldiers got sick and was worse than the actual fighting in Cuba because the camps were not clean and people did not know enough about how to stop diseases from spreading. Other sicknesses like yellow fever, malaria, and dysentery also made soldiers ill.

The war showed that the American military needed to do better at keeping soldiers healthy. This led to important changes in how the military handles health and cleanliness to protect soldiers in the future.

Aftermath

The war lasted 16 weeks. The press showed Northerners and Southerners, as well as people of different races, fighting together against a common enemy. This helped heal some of the divisions left from the American Civil War. The war also marked the United States' entry into world affairs. After the war, the U.S. became more involved in global conflicts and agreements.

The war changed how Americans saw themselves and their role in the world. It also led to the U.S. gaining control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, and establishing a protectorate over Cuba. These changes shaped U.S. foreign policy for years to come. The war also brought economic growth and technological advances in the United States during the early 1900s.

In film and television

The Spanish–American War was the first U.S. war where cameras were used to record events. The Library of Congress has many old films and clips from that time. Because real battle scenes were hard to film, some shows used models and smoke to look like real fights.

A few movies and TV shows have been made about this war. Some of these include:

• The Rough Riders, a 1927 silent film
• A Message to Garcia, from 1936
• Pursued, a 1947 Western film. The main character Jeb Rand (Robert Mitchum) was hurt in the war and received the Medal of Honor
• Rough Riders, a 1997 television miniseries directed by John Milius, with actors like Tom Berenger (Theodore Roosevelt), Gary Busey (Joseph Wheeler), and others
• Crucible of Empire: The Spanish-American War, a 1999 television documentary from PBS
• The Spanish–American War: First Intervention, a 2007 docudrama from The History Channel
• Baler, a 2008 film about the Siege of Baler
• Los últimos de Filipinas ("The Last Ones of the Philippines"), a 1945 Spanish film
• Amigo, from 2010
• 1898, Our Last Men in the Philippines, a popular 2016 film about the Siege of Baler

Military decorations

United States

The United States gave out special awards to honor those who served in the Spanish–American War. These included:

• Medal of Honor
• Specially Meritorious Service Medal
• Spanish Campaign Medal — which could be upgraded with a Silver Citation Star for very brave actions
• West Indies Campaign Medal
• Sampson Medal — for serving with Admiral William T. Sampson in the West Indies
• Dewey Medal — for serving with Admiral George Dewey in the Battle of Manila Bay
• Spanish War Service Medal — for serving in the United States at home

After the war, there were also medals for occupying lands, such as:

• Army of Puerto Rican Occupation Medal
• Army of Cuban Occupation Medal

Spain

Spain also gave out awards to its soldiers. These included special crosses and medals for service in Cuba and the Philippines, such as:

• Army Cross of Military Merit
• Army Operations Medal for Cuba
• Medal for Volunteers in Cuba
• Army Operations Medal for the Philippines
• Medal for Volunteers in the Philippines

Other countries

Other countries, like Cuba, also gave out many awards to honor soldiers from Spain, Cuba, and the Philippines who served in the war.