Translation

Translation is the way we share the meaning of words and ideas from one language to another. When we translate, we take a text written in one language, called the source language, and we find ways to say the same thing in a different language, called the target language. This helps people who speak different languages understand each other better.

There are two main ways translation happens. One way is through writing, where a translator reads a text and writes its meaning in another language. The other way is through speaking or signing, which is called interpreting. Both help break down language barriers.

Translators sometimes accidentally bring words or ways of speaking from the source language into the target language. These "spill-overs" can sometimes add new useful words to the target language, making it richer.

Since the 1940s, people have tried to make translation easier by using machines. The Internet has also helped create a global market for translation services, making it easier for people all over the world to communicate in different languages. communication meaning source-language text equivalent target-language terminological interpreting signed grammar syntax calques loanwords automate translation mechanically aid the human translator Internet world-wide market translation services language localisation

Etymology

The word for the idea of "translation" in English and some other European languages comes from the Latin word translatio. This word is made from trans, meaning "across", and -latio, which comes from latus, the past form of the verb ferre, meaning "to carry" or "to bring". So, translatio and words based on it mean bringing a text from one language to another.

In some other European languages, the word for "translation" comes from another Latin word, trāductiō, which also means "bring across". This word is made from trans, "across", and dūcō, meaning "to lead" or "to bring".

The Ancient Greek word for "translation" is metaphrasis, meaning "a speaking across". This has given English the words "metaphrase" (which means a direct, word-for-word translation) and "paraphrase" (which means saying something again in different words). "Metaphrase" matches what some people call "formal equivalence", and "paraphrase" matches what they call "dynamic equivalence".

The idea of metaphrase, or word-for-word translation, is not perfect. This is because a word in one language can have many meanings, and the same meaning might be expressed with different words in another language. Still, metaphrase and paraphrase can help us understand the different ways people might approach translation.

Theories

Western theory

Discussions about how to translate go back to very old times and have many similarities across different places. The ancient Greeks made a difference between translating word-for-word and changing the words to fit better. English writer John Dryden talked about mixing these two ways when choosing words in the new language that match the original meaning.

Dryden warned against changing too much, saying that copying exactly from life should not mean changing important features. This idea of finding matching words or "equivalents" has been important since writers like Cicero and Horace.

Translating has not changed much since ancient times. Translators usually try to keep the original meaning and style, even if it means changing the word order or grammar. They adjust the sentence structure to fit the rules of the new language.

When a language does not have words for things in another language, translators sometimes borrow those words. This has helped many European languages share ideas. But some words are hard to translate because they come from different cultures.

Translators act as bridges between cultures, carrying values from one to another. They are like artists, creating something new while staying true to the original. Some famous translators, like Martin Luther who translated the Bible into German, believed that translation should be done into one's own language.

No dictionary can fully guide a translator. Reading widely and listening to the spoken language helps understand meanings better.

Other traditions

Western ways of translation have replaced many older traditions, but some still matter today. Chinese translation has its own unique ideas and ways of thinking.

In places like Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Israel, people have translated for thousands of years. The Babylonians were the first to make translation a job. Later, translations from Greek and Coptic into Arabic started in the 7th century.

In Baghdad, a big library called Bayt al-Hikma had a translation department that worked on turning old works into Arabic. From there, translations into European languages began in the 11th century, especially after a school of translators was set up in Spain.

William Caxton translated a book in 1477 from an Egyptian text that had been translated into Latin and then French before coming to English.

Asia

There is a special way of translating in South, Southeast, and East Asia, especially for Buddhist texts and Chinese rule. Classical Indian translation often changes things a lot, while Chinese translation has its own rules.

In East Asia, Chinese texts were very important and influenced Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese languages. Japanese used a system called kanbun to read Chinese texts.

Translating from Chinese can be tricky because of how the language works. Chinese poetry is hard to translate because of its beauty in characters, calligraphy, and rhythm. Translators have to decide whether to stick closely to the words or capture the spirit of the poem.

Chinese poetry often leaves out subjects and uses words without showing number or tense, which makes translation challenging. Translators must choose between adding subjects or using other ways to keep the poem's feeling.

Islamic world

Translation into Arabic grew after the creation of Arabic writing in the 5th century and became very important with Islam. Early translations were mostly for politics, but later included Greek and Persian works for study.

Arabic translation learned from older traditions in the Near East and also from Greek and Persian ways. Later, Europeans studied Arabic translations of old works, which helped revive Western learning.

In the 19th century, printing and new schools changed how people learned in the Middle East. More newspapers and books appeared, and translators brought in new ideas from Europe. One important translator was Rifaa al-Tahtawi from Egypt, who translated many European books after studying in Paris.

Translations helped change Arabic and Ottoman Turkish languages, adding new words and simpler ways of speaking. This brought new ideas and ways of thinking to educated people.

Fidelity and transparency

Fidelity and transparency are two important ideas in translation. Fidelity means how well a translation keeps the meaning of the original text. Transparency means how natural the translation sounds in the new language.

A long time ago, a French writer said translations can be faithful to the original or beautiful in the new language, but not both. Sometimes, translators choose to stay very close to the original words, even if it sounds unusual in the new language. Other times, they change things to sound more natural. Both ways have their place, depending on what the translation is for.

Translators

A language is more than just a list of words and grammar rules. It includes many cultural meanings and references. Learning all of this can take a lifetime, as linguist Mario Pei says.

Michael Wood, a professor at Princeton University, says that translation, like language, involves many ideas and feelings. Comparing different translations of a book can be helpful.

Emily Wilson, a professor and translator, says that good translation is hard. Translators must read and write at the same time, like playing many instruments in a one-person band.

When Joseph Conrad tried to translate a Polish play to English in 1921, he missed some important parts of the Polish language because he didn’t use it much in everyday life.

Translating is like being an actor or musician interpreting a play or song. A translation is not just a copy but an interpretation, like one way to perform a play or a sonata.

Joseph Conrad told his Polish translator Aniela Zagórska to focus more on feeling than strict rules. He also thought a good translation should sound natural.

Emily Wilson says translation always needs interpretation. Translators must think deeply about each word and choice.

Daniel Mendelsohn, a professor, says that translation isn’t just looking words up in a dictionary. It needs interpretation and decisions.

Translating complex texts needs careful reading of both the original and the new translation to understand language problems and get as close as possible to the original meaning.

Language can be confusing. Gary Marcus, a psychologist, says people often don’t notice how ambiguous sentences are because our brains understand them well. This ambiguity is a challenge for translators.

Ambiguity can be okay in poetry and diplomacy but harder in everyday prose.

Words and phrases have many meanings. William Empson, a poet and critic, showed how language can have many reactions.

Translators may only translate parts of a text if they tell readers. But they should not remove parts just to please someone.

Translating helps writers learn. Ezra Pound told young poet W.S. Merwin that translation is the best teacher.

Translators connect two languages and cultures. They help shape languages by bringing in new words and ideas from other places.

Interpreting

Main article: Interpreting

Interpreting helps people talk to each other when they speak different languages, either at the same time or one after the other.

Interpreters have been important in history. For example, La Malinche helped the Spanish conquer Mexico in the 1500s by translating for Hernán Cortés.

Nearly 300 years later, Sacagawea helped the Lewis and Clark Expedition cross North America to the Pacific Ocean.

The Chinese writer Lin Shu translated Western books into Chinese with help from his friend Wang Shouchang, who knew foreign languages.

Sworn translation

Sworn translation, also called "certified translation," makes sure two documents in different languages are legally the same. The translator must be approved by local rules, which are different in each country.

Internet

Web-based human translation is often used by companies and people because it is more accurate than machine translation. With new tools like crowdsourcing, translation memory, and internet apps, translation services can quickly provide good translations for business, legal, medical, and software localization needs. These services are also used by website owners and bloggers.

Computer assist

Main article: Computer-assisted translation

Computer-assisted translation (CAT) helps human translators with computer programs. These tools include dictionaries, grammar checks, and special programs for managing words and phrases. They make translation faster and more consistent but do not translate by themselves. The human translator still does the work.

Machine translation

Main article: Machine translation

Machine translation is when a computer program tries to change a text from one language to another without a person helping. In practice, people usually help before and after the computer translates. This can make the translation better, especially if the computer has extra tools to help it remember words and phrases.

You can find machine translation tools on the Internet, like Google Translate, Almaany, Babylon, DeepL Translator, and StarDict. These tools give rough translations that can sometimes get the meaning right. They can help people read web pages in other languages, but they don’t always understand the full meaning or feelings behind the words.

Some tools show possible translations in pop-up windows as you move your mouse over foreign words. Companies also make small devices that can translate on the go.

However, using only machine translation without a person checking it can lead to mistakes. Even people who translate can make errors. To get a good translation, a person needs to check and fix the computer’s work. Machines can do some of the easier parts, but people are needed to understand the deeper meanings and fix confusing parts.

Machines struggle with understanding the full meaning of words and phrases, especially when there are many possible meanings. For example, a machine might not know who or what a word like “he” or “it” is talking about in a sentence.

Literary translation

Translation of literary works like novels, short stories, plays, and poems is seen as a special kind of art. In Canadian literature, famous translators include Sheila Fischman, Robert Dickson, and Linda Gaboriau. Canada’s Governor General’s Awards give prizes each year for the best translations between English and French.

Other well-known literary translators are Vasily Zhukovsky, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Vladimir Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges, Robert Stiller, Lydia Davis, Haruki Murakami, Achy Obejas, and Jhumpa Lahiri.

In the 2010s, a big difference was noticed in how many male and female writers were translated into English, with far more men being translated. In 2014, Meytal Radzinski started the Women in Translation campaign to fix this.

History

The first big translation in the West was the Septuagint, a set of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. This happened because Jewish people who had moved away from their homeland had forgotten their old language and needed Greek versions of their holy books.

During the Middle Ages, Latin was the main language for learning in Europe. In the 9th century, Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, asked for translations of important works into the old English language. At the same time, the Christian Church was careful about changing the Latin Bible.

In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to many years of translating texts. The Tangut Empire was very good at this, using new printing methods and support from their leaders to translate large amounts of work quickly.

The Arabs also did a lot of translating, turning Greek works into Arabic. Later, these Arabic versions were translated into Latin, especially in Spain, helping to grow European learning.

The history of translation into English shows many changes. The first good translations into English were made in the 14th century by Geoffrey Chaucer. The first big English translation was the Wycliffe Bible around 1382. Later important works include Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur and the Tyndale New Testament.

Modern translation

As languages change over time, older texts can become hard to understand. To help modern readers, these texts are sometimes translated into today’s language. This has been done with the Bible and works by Shakespeare and Chaucer.

Translating Homer’s Odyssey into modern English is difficult, but translators try to keep the morals and feelings of the original while making it clear for today’s readers.

Poetry

Translating poetry is very tricky because it’s hard to keep the rhythm, rhyme, and feelings of the original poem. Some experts think poetry can’t really be translated, while others try to capture as much as possible.

Book titles

Book titles can be straightforward or more symbolic. For example, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry’s Le Petit Prince means The Little Prince, while Stieg Larsson’s The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo in Swedish is Men Who Hate Women.

Plays

Translating plays is hard because it needs to work with actors and the way they perform. Translators have to think about how the words will sound and feel in a real performance.

Chinese literature

Translating Chinese literature into other languages is difficult because of the many different styles and types of writing. One famous book is the Wen Xuan, which has many kinds of poems and essays, making it very hard to translate well.

Religious texts

Translating religious texts has been very important in history. One early example is the Septuagint, the Greek version of Jewish Scriptures. Jerome, who translated the Bible into Latin, is famous for his work. Some translations have caused debates, like different ways to say parts of the Lord’s Prayer.

Experimental literature

Some modern writers mix their own translations into their books. Kathy Acker and Giannina Braschi have done this in their novels, showing how tricky it is to move words from one language to another.

Science fiction

Translating science fiction has its own challenges because of made-up words and ideas. After World War II, many science fiction books were translated from English into other languages. Now, more books are being translated from languages other than English.

Technical translation

Main article: Technical translation

Technical translation helps people understand important documents like manuals, instruction sheets, and financial reports. These documents are usually only useful for a small group of people, such as the owners of a specific refrigerator model or users of certain software.

Sometimes, translators need help from other experts to translate complex texts. For example, when translating a book, they might work with someone who knows another language or a specific subject very well. They may also travel to different places to make sure names and locations are translated correctly.

Survey translation

A survey questionnaire is a list of questions meant to learn about people’s thoughts, actions, or knowledge. When surveys are used in different countries or cultures, translation is very important to make sure the information gathered is fair and useful. A method called TRAPD (Translation, Review, Adjudication, Pretest, and Documentation), first made for the European Social Surveys, is now commonly used around the world, even if not always called by this name.

Working with a team is best for translating surveys. This team can include translators, experts who know the subject, and others who understand the study’s goals. Even if these people don’t speak the language being translated, they can help make sure the questions still mean what they should. Good translations need to match not just the words, but also the cultural ways and norms of the people speaking the new language.