Xiongnu

The Xiongnu were a group of tribes that lived on the wide grasslands of eastern Eurasian Steppe from about the 3rd century BC until the late 1st century AD. They were led by a powerful ruler named Modu Chanyu who started their empire around 209 BC. After defeating another group called the Yuezhi, the Xiongnu became very strong and controlled large areas including parts of what are now Siberia, Inner Mongolia, Gansu, and Xinjiang.

Their relationship with the ancient Chinese dynasties was complicated, with times of peace and times of war. Eventually, the powerful Han dynasty defeated the Xiongnu after many years of fighting. This led the Xiongnu to split into two groups, and many were moved to live inside the Han lands.

Later, people from the Xiongnu helped start new states in northern China, such as Han-Zhao, Xia, and maybe Northern Liang, during a time called the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Scientists have studied the Xiongnu and found links with other groups like the Saka, Sarmatians, and possibly the Huns, though many questions about their origins and language remain uncertain.

Name

The Xiongnu were known as "fierce slaves" in ancient Chinese records. They were nomadic people who rode horses and were seen as invaders from the north by the Han Chinese. The name "Xiongnu" comes from an old Chinese word, and its exact meaning and pronunciation remain topics of study among historians today.

Predecessors

Before the Xiongnu, the lands of central and east Mongolia were home to people of the Slab Grave Culture. These people were ancestors of the Xiongnu and mixed with people from Western Eurasia to form the Xiongnu confederation. During ancient times, the areas were also inhabited by various nomadic tribes, such as the Xianyun and Rong tribes, who often clashed with early Chinese states expanding northward.

Early history

The Xiongnu began to take shape under leaders like Touman, around 220 BC. After conflicts with the powerful Qin dynasty of China, Touman's son Modu Chanyu united the Xiongnu into a strong confederation. This made them a major power, able to challenge the growing Han dynasty of China.

State formation

Modu Chanyu expanded the Xiongnu Empire in all directions, conquering other nomadic groups and reclaiming lands lost to the Qin. By the time of his death in 174 BC, the Xiongnu were a dominant force, able to besiege the Han capital and negotiate treaties as equals.

Xiongnu hierarchy

The Xiongnu were organized like an army, with a ruler called the chanyu at the top. Below him were kings and various officials, all arranged in a clear chain of command. This structure helped them govern their vast territories and large populations of nomadic followers.

Marriage diplomacy with Han dynasty

To avoid war, the Han dynasty sometimes sent women, often not actual princesses, to marry Xiongnu leaders. These marriages, along with gifts of silk and other goods, helped maintain peace between the two powers for many years, though tensions often flared up again.

Han–Xiongnu wars

When peace broke down, the Han launched major military campaigns against the Xiongnu under leaders like Emperor Wu. These wars saw large battles and the Han general Huo Qubing achieving significant victories, pushing the Xiongnu back and securing Han control over key trade routes.

Xiongnu Civil War (60–53 BC)

Internal conflicts arose when different family lines claimed the right to rule after a chanyu's death. This led to civil war among Xiongnu leaders, with some submitting to Han authority while others continued to resist from distant regions.

Tributary relations with the Han

Eventually, some Xiongnu leaders, like Huhanye, agreed to become vassals of the Han. This meant they had to visit the Han capital, send hostages, and offer tribute, but in return, they received valuable gifts and support from the Han emperor.

Southern Xiongnu and Northern Xiongnu

As relations changed, the Xiongnu split into two groups. The Southern Xiongnu settled near Han borders and became dependent on Han support, while the Northern Xiongnu continued to resist from farther north. Eventually, the Northern group was defeated and scattered by the Han and other nomadic tribes.

Descendants and later states in northern China

Over time, many Xiongnu mixed with local populations and adopted Chinese ways of life. Some Xiongnu descendants later founded or played roles in various states during the period known as the Sixteen Kingdoms in northern China, but their distinct identity gradually faded as they assimilated into broader Chinese society.

Significance

The Xiongnu confederation lasted a long time for a group of nomadic people. They raided the Central Plain not just to get goods, but to make the people there give them regular payments called tribute. The Xiongnu ruler’s power came from controlling this tribute, which he used to reward his supporters. The Han and Xiongnu empires grew at the same time because the Xiongnu needed the Han’s tribute.

One weakness of the Xiongnu was their way of choosing a new leader. If a ruler died and his son was too young to lead, power went to the ruler’s brother. This worked at first but later caused problems. The first time this happened, around 60 BC, the weaker group moved south, submitted to the Central Plain, and used the help they got to defeat the northern group and bring the empire back together. The second time, around 47 AD, this plan did not work, and the Xiongnu stayed divided.

Ethnolinguistic origins

Historians do not agree on whether the Xiongnu were of Turkic or Mongolian origin. Some pieces of evidence from old Chinese records might show that the Xiongnu spoke a different language from the Xianbei, who were of Mongolian or Paramongolian origin. However, the true origin of the Xiongnu is still a mystery.

Most people think that the Xiongnu empire was made up of many different groups of people. There are many ideas about what language the Xiongnu leaders might have spoken, but no one really knows for sure.

Proposed link to the Huns

See also: Origin of the Huns

An old idea from the 1700s says that the Xiongnu might be linked to the Huns, people who later appeared in Europe. This idea comes from old Chinese writings that used names for tribes close to "Hun" when talking about groups related to the Xiongnu. Some studies show that both the Xiongnu and the Huns were called the same name, γwn (xwn), in old writing from Sogdiana. Many experts now think the Xiongnu might have been the early form of the Huns, but this is not completely proven. It might be too simple to say they were the same, just like how other groups such as the Rouran might be linked to different European tribes.

Iranian theories

See also: Iranian languages

Many experts think that the leaders of the Xiongnu might have first come from a group called the Sogdians but later started speaking a Turkic language. One scholar thought the Xiongnu leaders spoke an Iranian language because of names from the second century BC. Another expert says the Xiongnu name sounds like words from Scythian, Saka, and Sogdia, which are all Eastern Iranian Scythian groups. One big book from 1994 says that the royal tribes and kings of the Xiongnu had Iranian names, and all their words noted by Chinese writers can be explained using a Scythian language. So, it seems most Xiongnu tribes spoke an Eastern Iranian language.

But a study from 2020 says that most Xiongnu people probably spoke a Turkic language. Still, Iranian-speaking groups might have brought important culture, technology, and politics to the Xiongnu, even if they were later mixed in with the larger Turkic-speaking group.

Yeniseian theories

See also: Yeniseian languages and Para-Yeniseian languages

One idea from the middle of the 1900s says the Xiongnu spoke a Yeniseian language. This idea grew from a song found in old Chinese writing that looks like it might be Yeniseian. Some experts think that a group called the Jie, who were part of the western Xiongnu, might have spoken a Yeniseian language. They think the main Xiongnu language might have been Turkic or Yeniseian, but the Xiongnu were definitely made up of many different groups.

Another expert looked at Xiongnu words and thought they looked a lot like words from Yeniseian languages. But a study from 2020 questions this idea. One review in 2023 says that even if Yeniseian-speaking people were part of the Xiongnu, they might have played a bigger role in Eurasian history than we used to think.

Turkic theories

See also: Turkic languages

A 2020 study says that most Xiongnu people probably spoke a Turkic language. But genetic studies show they had mixed backgrounds from both western and eastern parts of Eurasia, showing they were very diverse. Other experts think the Xiongnu might have been early Turks or might have spoken a language close to Turkic.

Old Chinese books connect several Turkic groups to the Xiongnu. Some of these groups said they came from Xiongnu leaders. Other books mention tribes that might have spoken Turkic or Para-Mongolic languages also being linked to the Xiongnu.

Mongolic theories

See also: Mongolic languages

Some Mongolian experts think the Xiongnu spoke a language related to Mongolic languages. They think the people who lived in areas with slab graves might have been the ancestors of the Xiongnu, and some even think the Xiongnu might have been the ancestors of the Mongols. One old book says a group called the Rourans, who might have spoken a Proto-Mongolic language, were also linked to the Xiongnu. Other books mention groups like the Khitans, who are thought to have spoken Mongolic or Para-Mongolic languages, also being connected to the Xiongnu.

Multiple ethnicities

Since the 1800s, many Western experts have thought the Xiongnu might have been a mix of many different language groups. Many believe the Xiongnu confederation was a mix of many ethnic and language groups, and we still do not fully know what language they spoke.

Chinese books connect some Turkic groups to the Xiongnu, but not all. Some of these groups might have mixed with the Xiongnu. Old writings also link many other nomadic groups to the Xiongnu, just like how European writers called many groups "Scythians."

Some Uyghur leaders said they came from Xiongnu leaders, but many modern experts do not think modern Uyghurs are direct descendants of the old Uyghur leaders. Instead, they think modern Uyghurs come from many different groups, including the old Uyghurs.

Language isolate theories

Turkologist Gerhard Doerfer said there might be no link between the Xiongnu language and any other known language, not even Turkic or Mongolian.

Geographic origins

The original home of the Xiongnu people is still a mystery to researchers. Since the 1960s, scientists have tried to find clues by studying old burial sites from the Early Iron Age. However, no single area has been proven to match the burial ways of the Xiongnu.

Archaeology

In the 1920s, a researcher named Pyotr Kozlov studied important tombs at the Noin-Ula burial site in northern Mongolia, which date to around the first century AD. Other Xiongnu sites have been found in Inner Mongolia, like the Ordos culture. Some portraits from these sites show that Chinese and Xiongnu art influenced each other. Well-preserved remains from Mongolia and southern Siberia show a mix of East Asian and West Eurasian features.

Today, four fully studied cemeteries exist: Ivolga, Dyrestui, Burkhan Tolgoi, and Daodunzi. Thousands of tombs have also been recorded in Transbaikalia and Mongolia. Researchers studying a Xiongnu cemetery in Arkhangai Province noted that while they couldn't always tell the ethnicity of tomb occupants, some tombs contained items suggesting connections to the Xiongnu leaders.

Genetics

See also: Rouran Khaganate § Genetics, Xianbei § Genetics, Donghu people § Genetics, Huns § Genetics, Scythians § Archaeogenetics, and Pannonian Avars § Genetics

Maternal lineages

Studies show that most Xiongnu maternal lines come from East Asia, but some also come from Western Eurasian areas. One study found that 89% of Xiongnu maternal lines were from East Asia, while 11% were from Western Eurasia. Another study found that about 37.5% were from Western Eurasia. These studies suggest that the Xiongnu people were very similar to groups that lived before them, called the Slab Grave culture.

Some examples of maternal lines found in Xiongnu remains include D4b2b4, N9a2a, G3a3, D4a6, D4b2b2b, and U2e1.

Paternal lineages

About half of the Xiongnu paternal lines were from Western Eurasian groups, while the other half were from East Asian groups. This is different from the groups that lived before them, which mostly had East Asian paternal lines. This may show that new groups with Western Eurasian paternal lines joined the Xiongnu, or that marriages and cultural connections favored these lines.

Some examples of paternal lines in Xiongnu remains include C2, Q1b, R1, R1b, O3a, O3a3b2, J2a, J1a, and E1b1b1a.

High-status Xiongnu leaders mostly had East Asian paternal lines, while lower-status members had more diverse lines, including Western Eurasian ones.

Autosomal ancestry

Studies show that Xiongnu people had mixed ancestry from both East Asia and Western Eurasia. One study found that Xiongnu individuals came from two main groups: one mostly from East Asia and the other with a mix of East Asian and Western Eurasian ancestry. Later Xiongnu groups had even more mixed ancestry, including influences from Sarmatian and Han Chinese groups.

One Xiongnu individual studied in 2024 had ancestry only from Ancient Northeast Asians, similar to later Turkic groups.

Relationship between ethnicity and status among the Xiongnu

The Xiongnu people had mixed ancestries, but their social status seemed to affect their genetic makeup. Lower-status members had more diverse ancestries, often related to the Chandman/Uyuk culture or a mix of Chandman/Uyuk and Ancient Northeast Asian groups. Higher-status members, especially females, mostly had East Asian ancestry from the Ulaanzuukh/Slab Grave culture or the Xianbei. One high-status leader had a mix of Slab Grave, Han, and Saka ancestries.

Culture

Art

The Xiongnu culture showed many different styles from place to place, but all were unique compared to the Han people and other groups in the north. Some of their art showed animals, like a tiger carrying dead prey. This kind of art was also found in nearby areas, but with different details. For example, in one place called Maoqinggou, the art was simpler and rounder. Xiongnu art sometimes looked similar to art from the Saka and Scythian groups, but there were differences. For instance, Xiongnu bird drawings usually had smaller eyes and beaks and showed ears, while Saka birds had larger eyes and beaks and no ears.

Rock art and writing

Rock drawings from places like the Yin and Helan Mountains date back thousands of years. These drawings were mostly carved and only a few were painted. Chinese records say the Xiongnu did not write like the Chinese, but around the 2nd century BC, a Chinese person taught their leaders to write letters to China on wooden tablets. They also used special wooden pieces to keep track of things. Archaeologists found carved symbols at Xiongnu burial sites that look like old letters used by Turkic people much later.

Religion and diet

The Xiongnu called the sky "Chēnglí," which was their way of saying "Heaven." They were nomadic people who raised animals and traded horses with China, so they mostly ate mutton, horse meat, and wild geese. Evidence suggests that some Xiongnu people may have known about Buddhism, as small Buddhist prayer beads were found in one of their graves.