ISRO

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is the national space agency of India, based in Bengaluru, Karnataka. It helps India explore space, work with other countries on space projects, and build new technologies for use on Earth and in space. ISRO looks after many satellites that help with things like taking pictures from space, talking to people far away, and watching over the Earth.

ISRO has sent spacecraft to the Moon three times and to Mars once. It also has its own systems for finding locations, like GAGAN and IRNSS. These help with navigation and many important tasks.

ISRO started in 1962 and grew into a big organization that builds and launches its own rockets. It made India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which flew into space with help from the Soviet Union in 1975. In 1980, ISRO launched its own rocket, the SLV-3, making India the seventh country to send something into orbit around the Earth.

The work of ISRO has helped people in many ways. It supports disaster management, helps doctors reach patients far away through telemedicine, and provides technology that benefits both everyday life and important government work. Many new inventions and products come from ISRO's research and development.

History

Agency logo

ISRO has had an official logo since 2002. It shows an orange arrow pointing upwards with two blue satellite parts on the sides. The name of ISRO is written in orange using the Devanagari script on the left and in blue using the Prakrit style of writing on the right.

Formative years

Modern space research in India began in the 1920s when a scientist named S. K. Mitra did experiments to study the ionosphere using radio signals in Kolkata. Later, scientists like C. V. Raman and Meghnad Saha added to the knowledge used in space science. After 1945, important steps were taken in space research in India by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai, who started the Physical Research Laboratory in Ahmedabad, and Homi J. Bhabha, who began the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945. Early experiments included studying cosmic radiation, testing at high altitudes and underground at the Kolar mines, and looking at the upper atmosphere. These studies happened at research places, universities, and other spots.

In 1950, an organization called the DAE was created with Bhabha as its leader, and it gave money for space research all over India. During this time, more tests were done on meteorology and the Earth's magnetic field, something studied in India since the Colaba Observatory was set up in 1823. In 1954, the Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES) began at the foot of the Himalayas. The Rangpur Observatory started in 1957 at Osmania University, Hyderabad. The government of India kept supporting space research. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, which opened up space for everyone.

INCOSPAR was created in 1962 by the Government of India because of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai's ideas. H. G. S. Murthy, an officer in the Indian Ordnance Factories Service (IOFS), became the first leader of the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station, where sounding rockets were launched, starting upper atmosphere research in India. A series of Indian sounding rockets named Rohini began launching from 1967.

1970s and 1980s

Under the government of Indira Gandhi, INCOSPAR was replaced by ISRO. Later in 1972, a space commission and the Department of Space (DoS) were created to manage space technology in India. ISRO was put under DoS, making space research in India more organized and shaping the Indian space program. India joined the Soviet Interkosmos program for space work together and got its first satellite, Aryabhata, into space using a Soviet rocket.

Work began on creating a rocket that could send a 35 kg object into low Earth orbit. ISRO made a Satellite Launch Vehicle that could send 40 kg into a 400-kilometre orbit. Places for launching, tracking, and talking to rockets were set up. The first launch of the SLV in 1979 carried a Rohini test payload but did not put the satellite in the right spot. A later launch in 1980 was successful and sent up a Rohini Series-I satellite. RS-1 was the third Indian satellite to reach orbit because Bhaskara had been sent up by the USSR in 1979. Work also started on a bigger rocket that could send 600 kg satellites into a 1,000-kilometre Sun-synchronous orbit. The SLV-3 had two more launches before it was stopped in 1983. ISRO began working on a new, more powerful engine called Vikas, based on a French design called Viking. Facilities to test these new engines were built, and testing of many rocket engines started.

At the same time, a solid-fuel rocket called the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) was being made, based on the SLV-3, to launch satellites into geostationary orbit (GTO). The ASLV had some successes but also many launch failures, so it was stopped. During this time, technology for communication satellites for the Indian National Satellite System and the Indian Remote Sensing Programme for Earth-seeing satellites was developed, and launches from other countries began. The number of satellites grew, and these systems became some of the biggest groups of satellites in the world, with many types like communication, radar pictures, optical pictures, and weather satellites.

1990s

The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) that came in the 1990s was a big help for India's space program. Except for its first launch in 1994 and two later partial failures, the PSLV had over 50 successful launches. The PSLV let India send up its low Earth orbit satellites, small payloads to GTO, and hundreds of foreign satellites. While the PSLV was flying, work continued on a new rocket, a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV). India tried to get upper-stage engines that freeze from Russia's Glavkosmos, but the US stopped this. So, engines called KVD-1 were brought from Russia under a new deal, which had some success. India also started a project to make its own freezing engines in 1994, which took two decades to finish. A new deal was made with Russia for seven KVD-1 engines and a model for testing, but no sharing of technology or designs from the earlier deal. These engines were used for the first GSLV flights and were called GSLV Mk I. After the United States would not help India with Global Positioning System (GPS) technology during the Kargil War, ISRO began making its own satellite navigation system called NavIC, also known as the IRNSS.

2000s and 2010s

In 2003, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee asked scientists to work on landing humans on the Moon, and programs for Moon, planet, and human missions began. ISRO sent Chandrayaan-1 on a PSLV in 2008, which was said to be the first probe to find water on the Moon.

ISRO sent the Mars Orbiter Mission (or Mangalyaan) on a PSLV in 2013, which later became the first Asian spacecraft to reach Mars' orbit, making India the first country to do this on its first try.

After this, the freezing upper stage for the GSLV rocket started working, making India the sixth country to have full launch abilities. A new, bigger rocket called LVM3 was introduced in 2014 for heavier satellites and future human space missions.

In September 2019, Project NETRA was made public to help deal with space junk and objects near Earth.

2020s

On 23 August 2023, India made its first soft landing on another world and became the first country to land a spacecraft near the lunar south pole and the fourth to land on the Moon with ISRO's Chandrayaan-3. The Chandrayaan-3 moon mission successfully landed its Vikram lander near the Moon's south pole at 6.04 pm IST (12:34 pm GMT) in a world first. India then sent its first sun probe, the Aditya-L1, on a PSLV on 2 September 2023.

On 30 December 2024, ISRO successfully sent up the SpaDeX mission, showing spacecraft rendezvous, docking, and undocking using two small satellites. On 16 January 2025, the ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network checked that the docking worked. India joined a small group of countries to do successful space docking with its own technology.

On 24 August 2025, ISRO finished the first test of dropping from the air for the Gaganyaan human spaceflight program. On 2 November 2025, ISRO sent up CMS-03, a communication satellite, on an LVM3-M5 rocket from Sriharikota. All seven LVM3 missions were fully successful. On 24 December 2025, ISRO launched AST SpaceMobile's BlueBird Block-2 on the LVM3-M6 rocket. This was the heaviest foreign satellite ever launched from India, weighing 6,100 kg (13,400 lb).

Goals and objectives

ISRO is India's national space agency. It works on many space projects. Its main goals are to use space for research and communication, build space rockets and satellites, and explore the upper atmosphere and deep space. ISRO also helps India's private space industry by supporting new technology.

Important leaders in India support the space program. They think using advanced technology to solve problems in the country is important. India’s space efforts have grown as the country’s economy has improved. In 2008, India launched 11 satellites in one mission, including satellites from other countries. It was the first nation to send 10 satellites on a single rocket.

Organisation structure and facilities

See also: ISRO facilities

ISRO is managed by the Department of Space, which is overseen by the Space Commission. ISRO manages several important agencies and institutes, including:

• Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm of ISRO, located in Bengaluru
• Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), in Ahmedabad
• National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL), in Gadanki, Andhra Pradesh
• NewSpace India Limited – The commercial wing, based in Bengaluru
• North-Eastern Space Applications Centre (NE-SAC), in Umiam
• Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), in Thiruvananthapuram – India's space university

SDSC

SLC

TERLS

General satellite programmes

See also: List of Indian satellites

Since 1975, when the first satellite called Aryabhata was launched, India has sent up many groups of satellites into space. Today, ISRO runs a large group of working satellites for talking to people and taking pictures of Earth, for both military and everyday uses.

The IRS series

Main article: Indian Remote Sensing Programme

The Indian Remote Sensing Programme (IRSP) are India’s satellites that watch over Earth. They are the largest set of satellites for everyday use, giving information about Earth. All these satellites fly in special paths around Earth called polar Sun-synchronous orbit (except GISATs). They help with many projects important for the country, like planning cities, studying oceans, and looking after the environment. The satellites have different jobs, such as Oceansat, Cartosat, HySIS, EMISAT, and ResourceSat. In 2020, all got the same name start: “EOS”. They can see Earth in different ways and help many Indian groups.

The INSAT series

Main article: Indian National Satellite System

The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) are India’s communication satellites. They are special satellites that stay in one place above Earth and help with talking, TV, weather, and finding help in emergencies. Since the first one in 1983, INSAT has grown to be the largest system of this kind in the Asia-Pacific area. Many groups work together to use these satellites, like the space department, the phone department, the weather department, radio, and TV. These satellites are also used by the Indian Armed Forces. One satellite, GSAT-9 or “SAARC Satellite”, helps smaller countries near India with communication.

Gagan Satellite Navigation System

Main article: GPS-aided GEO augmented navigation

The Ministry of Civil Aviation decided to create its own system to help planes navigate using satellites. This system is called GAGAN – GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. It is part of a bigger plan for helping airplanes and other machines in the sky. Airports Authority of India and ISRO worked together to set up eight special stations at airports to help this system work.

Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC)

Main article: Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System

NavIC is India’s own system to help find places using satellites. It gives very exact information to people in India and areas up to 1,500 km away. NavIC gives two kinds of help: one for everyone and one special one for certain users. It can tell where you are within 20 meters.

Other satellites

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Kalpana-1 (MetSat-1) was ISRO’s first satellite just for watching the weather. Another satellite, SARAL, worked with France to watch the oceans and sea levels. SARAL can measure the height of the ocean very exactly.

Launch vehicles

In the 1960s and 1970s, India started making its own rockets. In those years, India made a simple rocket, and by the 1980s, it had created two more rockets called SLV-3 and ASLV.

The Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-3) was India's first space rocket. Its first try failed, but the second try in 1980 worked, and India became the sixth country to send a rocket into space on its own. After that, India started working on bigger rockets.

The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is a medium-sized rocket that helped India send many of its own satellites and some from other countries into orbit. It had a few early problems but has since become very reliable, with over 50 successful launches.

The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) was made in the 1990s to send heavier satellites into special orbits. India had to build its own engine technology because it could not get help from other countries.

The Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3) is one of India's biggest rockets today. It can carry very heavy satellites and might be used for India's first mission with astronauts.

The Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is a smaller rocket designed to launch tiny satellites into low orbits.

India also has several types of sounding rockets for studying the weather and atmosphere. These include the Rohini rockets and the Advanced Technology Vehicle, which tests new engine designs.

Human spaceflight programme

Main articles: Indian Human Spaceflight Programme, Gaganyaan, and List of Indian astronauts

In 2006, ISRO started thinking about sending people into space. They began testing with a small space capsule in 2007, which returned safely after 12 days.

In 2018, the Prime Minister said India would send astronauts into space by 2022 using a new spacecraft called Gaganyaan. ISRO has been working on the needed tools and systems to keep astronauts safe and comfortable. The plan is to send two or three Indians into space for at least seven days using a special rocket.

Astronaut training and other facilities

A new center called the Human Space Flight Centre will manage this program. ISRO will create a training center in Bengaluru to help astronauts prepare for space travel. They will practice with special machines and study how space affects the body. Four Indian Air Force members finished their training in 2021.

Axiom Mission 4

Main article: Axiom Mission 4

In June 2025, Shubhanshu Shukla became the first Indian astronaut to travel to the International Space Station as part of Axiom Mission 4. He spent about two weeks there doing experiments, including some from ISRO.

Crewed spacecraft

Main article: Gaganyaan

ISRO is building a spacecraft named Gaganyaan to carry people into space. It will stay in orbit for up to seven days and can hold up to three people. A later version will connect with other spacecraft.

Space station

Main article: Bharatiya Antariksh Station

India plans to build a space station after the Gaganyaan missions. Called the Bharatiya Antariksh Station, it will hold up to three astronauts for about 15 to 20 days. ISRO hopes to launch it several years after Gaganyaan and use it for research with other countries.

Planetary sciences and astronomy

ISRO and the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research have run a balloon launch base in Hyderabad since 1967. This spot is good for studying space because it is close to Earth's geo-magnetic equator.

ISRO helped find three special kinds of tiny life high above us. These tiny life forms can survive strong rays and are found nowhere else on our planet. They are called Bacillus isronensis, Bacillus aryabhata, and Janibacter hoylei.

Astrosat

Main article: AstroSat

Astrosat was launched in 2015 and is India’s first special telescope for looking far into space. It studies bright objects like spinning stars and big black holes.

XPoSat

Main article: XPoSat

The X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) is a satellite that looks at black holes and X-rays. It was launched on 1 January 2024 using a PSLV-DL rocket and is expected to work for at least five years.

Extraterrestrial exploration

Lunar exploration

Main article: Chandrayaan programme

Chandrayaan means 'Mooncraft' and describes India's series of spacecraft exploring the Moon. The first mission had an orbiter and an impact probe. Later missions added landers, rovers, and sampling.

Chandrayaan-1

Main article: Chandrayaan-1

Chandrayaan-1 was India's first trip to the Moon. It had a lunar orbiter and a probe called the Moon Impact Probe. ISRO launched it on 22 October 2008. It entered lunar orbit on 8 November 2008 and carried tools to study the Moon's surface. Scientists were especially interested in the polar areas, where they thought there might be ice. The mission carried instruments from India and several other countries, including NASA, ESA, and others.

Chandrayaan-2

Main article: Chandrayaan-2

Chandrayaan-2 was India's second Moon mission. It had an orbiter, a lander, and a rover. It launched on 22 July 2019 to explore the Moon's south pole. The lander had trouble landing, but the orbiter worked well.

Chandrayaan-3

Main article: Chandrayaan-3

Chandrayaan-3 was India's try again to land on the Moon. This time, it succeeded! On 23 August 2023, ISRO became the first space agency to land near the Moon's south pole. India was also the fourth country ever to land on the Moon. To celebrate, the Prime Minister named 23 August National Space Day.

Mars exploration

Main article: Indian Mars exploration missions

Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or (Mangalyaan-1)

Main article: Mars Orbiter Mission

The Mars Orbiter Mission, also called Mangalyaan, launched on 5 November 2013. It reached Mars on 24 September 2014, making India the first country to reach Mars on its very first try. It cost much less than many other space missions.

Mars and Moon analogue research station

Main article: Ladakh Human Analogue Mission

Scientists think Ladakh is a great place to practice for future Moon and Mars missions because its conditions are similar. Researchers are planning a research station there to help prepare for India’s human space missions. In Ladakh, a company called Aaka Space Studio and ISRO will run a mission to test how people can live and work in tough, isolated places like the Moon or Mars. They will study health and test technologies. They did a smaller test in Rann of Kutch in 2023.

Solar probes

Aditya-L1

Main article: Aditya-L1

On 2 September 2023, ISRO launched Aditya-L1 to study the Sun. This is India’s first satellite to look at the Sun’s outer layer, called the corona. On 6 January 2024, Aditya-L1 reached its special spot to begin its study.

Upcoming launches

Long-term plans may include sending astronauts to the Moon and other planets.

Extraterrestrial probes

Lunar exploration

Chandrayaan-4

Main article: Chandrayaan-4

Chandrayaan-4 is a planned mission to bring Moon samples back to Earth. It is the fourth mission in the Chandrayaan programme. The planning stages are finished, and the design work is almost done. The mission is expected to launch around 2028. It plans to bring back up to 3 kg of Moon material.

Lunar Polar Exploration Mission

Main article: Lunar Polar Exploration Mission

The Lunar Polar Exploration mission is a planned robotic mission by ISRO and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The mission would send an uncrewed lunar lander and rover to explore the south pole area of the Moon. JAXA may provide the launch vehicle and the rover, while ISRO would handle the lander.

Crewed Lunar Landing

ISRO plans to land an Indian astronaut on the Moon by 2040.

Mars exploration

Main article: Mars Lander Mission

The next Mars mission, called Mars Lander Mission or Mangalyaan 2, is proposed for launch in 2030. The new plan includes a rover, helicopter, sky crane and a supersonic parachute.

Venus exploration

Main article: Venus Orbiter Mission

ISRO is thinking about a mission to Venus called the Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM), which could launch as early as 2028 to study the planet's atmosphere. A mission to Venus is planned for 2025.

Asteroids and outer solar system

Studies are happening for spacecraft to go to asteroids and Jupiter, among other places, in the long term. Development of special power systems might allow the agency to do more missions to the outer planets.

Space telescopes and observatories

AstroSat-2

Main article: AstroSat-2

AstroSat-2 will follow the AstroSat mission.

Exoworlds

Exoworlds is a joint plan by ISRO, IIST and the University of Cambridge for a space telescope focused on studying the atmospheres of exoplanets. ExoWorlds is planned as a dedicated mission for exoplanet spectroscopy. The mission is waiting for approvals.

Indian Spectroscopic and Imaging Space Telescope (INSIST)

The Indian Spectroscopic and Imaging Space Telescope (INSIST) will create high-resolution images and will also be able to do spectroscopy. The INSIST plan was suggested by ISRO for early project work. Working with the Canadian Space Agency is also being discussed.^: 88 

DAKSHA

DAKSHA is a planned mission to watch the sky for high-energy events, with the main goals of studying gravitational waves and gamma-ray bursts. Starting money has been given to ISRO labs to make a lab model of its instruments. It is led by teams from Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and IIT Bombay. ISRO has said the mission meets all the technical needs but has not yet approved money for it.

Proposed space weather probe

ISRO has planned a mission to the L5 Lagrange point. It is still in the early idea stage.

Proposed LEO Solar Observatory

ISRO has planned to launch a mission to go with the Aditya-L1 probe to be placed in Low-Earth Orbit.^: 91 

Forthcoming satellites

Geospatial intelligence satellites

A group of 50 artificial intelligence-based satellites will be launched by ISRO between 2024 and 2028 to collect geospatial intelligence from different orbits. The satellites will watch nearby areas and the international border. They will use thermal, optical, synthetic aperture radar (SAR), and other technologies for GEOINT work.

Bodyguard satellites

The Indian government's Satellite-Protection Project, being created by ISRO, is to protect India's space tools and orbiting satellites from possible dangers in space. The project started after a close call in the middle of 2024.

Future projects

ISRO is making new rocket engines that are more powerful and cleaner. These engines will help India build much bigger rockets in the future. ISRO also plans to build a space station where astronauts can stay for about two weeks. This work will happen 5 to 7 years after the Gaganyaan mission, and it includes developing new ways to power satellites and spacecraft.

Engines and launch vehicles

Semi-cryogenic engine

Main article: SE-2000

The SE-2000 is a new rocket engine made from special fuel called RP-1 kerosene and liquid oxygen. It will be less polluting and much stronger than older engines. When used with the LVM3 rocket, it will help carry heavier loads into space. In March 2025, ISRO made big steps in creating this engine, which will have a strong push of 2,000 kN.

Methalox engine

Reusable engines using methane and liquid oxygen are being developed. Methane is cleaner and leaves less mess, so these engines will need less fixing after each use. Tests on these engine models began in 2020.

Modular heavy rockets

Main article: Next Generation Launch Vehicle

Current ISRO rockets cannot carry very heavy satellites into space beyond 4 tons. To fix this, ISRO is planning new heavy and super heavy rockets. These new rockets will have parts that can be swapped, making them easier and faster to build. One plan is for a rocket that can carry 10 tons into space, and another that can carry 50 to 100 tons.

ISRO also wants to build a rocket in the 2020s that can carry nearly 16 tons into space, which is four times more than today’s LVM3 rocket. A new family of rockets called the Next Generation Launch Vehicle or NGLV will share many parts and replace older rockets. These rockets will use methane and liquid oxygen as fuel and can carry between 4.9 and 16 tons into space.

Reusable launch vehicles

Main article: RLV Technology Demonstration Programme

ISRO has two projects to build rockets that can be used again. One project is called ADMIRE, and the other is RLV-TD. These rockets will launch straight up but land like a plane. To test these ideas, ISRO built a test rocket called RLV-TD. It was launched in February 2016 and flew up to 70 km. This test helped learn about flying very fast, landing by itself, and other new technologies. More tests are planned to help build a fully reusable rocket in the future.

Spacecraft propulsion and power

Electric thrusters

Main article: Spacecraft electric propulsion

India is working on new ways to power spacecraft using electric thrusters instead of older chemical methods. These electric thrusters make spacecraft lighter. In 2017, a satellite called GSAT-9 used this new electric power system. In March 2025, ISRO tested a new electric thruster that worked for 1,000 hours and will help future satellites move into the right position in space.

Alpha source thermoelectric propulsion technology

Main article: Radioisotope thermoelectric generator

ISRO is studying a special power system for spacecraft that uses heat from radioactive material. This could help power spacecraft for much longer times and is useful for missions far from the Sun. In 2021, ISRO tested this system on a moon mission and it worked well. ISRO is working with experts to develop this technology for future space missions.

Radioisotope heater unit

Main article: Radioisotope heater unit

ISRO used special heater units on a moon mission in 2023, and they worked perfectly. These heaters keep spacecraft warm in very cold space temperatures. ISRO is working with experts to use these heaters in future missions to explore deep space.

Nuclear propulsion

Main article: Nuclear propulsion

ISRO plans to work with experts to use nuclear power for future space missions.

Quantum technology

Quantum entanglement-based real-time communication over a 300-meter distance was shown in January 2022. This includes secure sending of text, images, and video calls using special quantum technology.

Satellite-based quantum communication

At the Indian Mobile Congress in 2023, ISRO showed its work on using satellites for quantum communication. This technology helps protect data from being broken by future computers. In September 2023, ISRO showed that quantum communication can work over 300 meters, including live video calls using special secure signals.

Upcoming launch facility

SSLV Launch Complex

Main article: SSLV Launch Complex

A new spaceport is being built in Kulasekarapattinam, a village in Tamil Nadu. When finished, it will be ISRO’s second place to launch rockets. This spaceport will mainly launch small rockets and those from private companies. It is expected to handle 20 to 25 launches each year and will be ready by December 2026.

Applications

India uses its big satellite network for many important jobs. It helps with managing land and water, forecasting weather and natural disasters, and connecting people through radio and computers. This technology helps businesses and government services, like the National Informatics Centre.

India’s satellites also help its military by giving them better information. These satellites support the army, navy, and air force in many ways.

Schools and universities use satellites to teach students, especially in villages far from cities. They show videos and lessons that help students learn better.

Doctors use satellites to help patients in places far from hospitals. They can talk to doctors in cities through video calls and get advice and treatment without traveling far.

ISRO’s work also helps scientists study plants and animals, making maps and pictures of Earth to learn more about nature. Their inventions have also helped make new technologies, like special clothes for soldiers and tools for doctors.

International cooperations

ISRO has worked with many countries and groups by signing agreements or memorandums of understanding. These include partnerships with the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, the European Commission, the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, the European Space Agency, and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.

Notable collaborative projects

• The Chandrayaan-1 mission carried scientific instruments from NASA, the European Space Agency, the Bulgarian Space Agency, and others in North America and Europe.
• For the Gaganyaan mission, ISRO worked with ESA to get support from ground stations.

Indo-French satellite missions

ISRO has worked with France's CNES on two satellite missions. The Megha-Tropiques mission, which is now finished, studied the water cycle in tropical areas. The SARAL mission, which is still active, helps with measuring heights of objects from space using altimetry. The two countries are planning a third mission called TRISHNA (Thermal infraRed Imaging Satellite for High resolution Natural resource Assessment) to observe Earth with a thermal infrared imager.

LUPEX

The Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LUPEX) is a joint mission between India and Japan. India will provide the technology for landing on the Moon’s surface.

NISAR

The NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint project between India and the US. This satellite will use radar with L band and S band frequencies, making it the first of its kind in the world.

Other collaborations

ISRO also works with several international programs and groups. It helps with search and rescue operations through the COSPAS/SARSAT Programme. India has set up a centre for space education in Asia and the Pacific, supported by the United Nations. India is part of many international space groups, including the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Cospas-Sarsat, International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), International Space University, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellite (CEOS). India also helps with the planned BRICS virtual constellation for remote sensing.

Corporate affairs

The Indian government sells a special kind of invisible space called "spectrum" to companies so they can talk to each other using wireless devices like cell phones. This spectrum is very valuable. In 2010, the government sold some of this spectrum for a lot of money.

In 2005, a company linked to ISRO, called Antrix, made a deal to rent space on two ISRO satellites to another company, Devas Multimedia. This deal was later found to have problems because it did not follow the right rules. Some important people were not told about the deal, and the satellites were built using public money.

Later, investigations happened, and the deal was cancelled. Some people involved faced consequences, and legal cases were started. Devas wanted a lot of money as compensation, and courts had to decide on these requests.