Iran

Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the northeast, Afghanistan to the east, Pakistan to the southeast, and the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. Iran has a population of over 92 million people, making it one of the largest countries in the world. Its capital city, Tehran, is also its biggest city and main economic center.

Iran has one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations. It was first unified under the Medes in the 7th century BC and later reached its height under Cyrus the Great, who founded the Achaemenid Empire. Ancient Iran was important for early developments in writing, agriculture, and religion.

In more recent times, Iran went through big changes. The Iranian Revolution in 1979 brought about a new government, the Islamic Republic. Today, Iran is known for its significant oil and natural gas reserves and plays an important role in global affairs. The country continues to face many challenges.

Name

Iran, officially called the Islamic Republic of Iran, is also known as Persia. It is a country in West Asia. Iran shares borders with Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the northeast, Afghanistan to the east, Pakistan to the southeast, and the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. Iran has over 92 million people, making it one of the largest countries in the world.

History

Main article: History of Iran

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Iranian history.

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistory of Iran

People have lived in Iran for around 800,000 years. Many ancient sites from this time have been found, especially in the Zagros Mountains in western Iran. Some of these sites are linked to Neanderthals. Agriculture began in Iran about 12,000 years ago, with early farming settlements like Chogha Golan growing wheat and Ganj Dareh raising goats.

The ancient city of Susa, which later became a capital of several empires, was first settled around 4400–4200 BC near today’s Shush, Iran. The Kura–Araxes culture existed in northwestern Iran and the Caucasus around 3400–2000 BC.

Antiquity

Further information: Medes and Indo-Iranians

Iran has one of the world’s oldest continuous civilizations, with settlements dating back to 4000 BC, such as the Jiroft culture in southeastern Iran. Early writing systems like the Proto-Elamite script have been found from the early third millennium BC. The western part of Iran was part of the ancient Near East, home to peoples like the Elamites, Kassites, Mannaeans, and Gutians. Iranian peoples began arriving from Central Asia in the second millennium BC.

The Median dynasty was the earliest Iranian state. In 612 BC, Cyaxares and the Babylonian king Nabopolassar invaded Assyria and destroyed the city of Nineveh, leading to the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes later conquered Urartu.

Achaemenid Empire

Main article: Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenids united all Persian tribes under Cambyses I. Under his son, Cyrus the Great, they defeated the Medes and established the Achaemenid Empire, the largest Iranian state ever. Cyrus conquered the Lydian and Neo-Babylonian empires. His son Cambyses II conquered ancient Egypt.

After Cambyses II’s death, Darius the Great became king. He made Susa his first capital and began building Persepolis. Darius improved roads, including the Royal Road from Susa to Sardis.

In 499 BC, Athens supported a revolt in Miletus, leading to the Greco-Persian Wars. Persian forces invaded Greece twice but were eventually driven out by Greek victories.

The empire declined, and Alexander the Great defeated Darius III between 334 BC and 331 BC, conquering the Achaemenid Empire. Alexander’s empire fell after his death, and his general Seleucus tried to control Iran.

Parthian and Sasanian empires

Main articles: Parthian Empire and Sasanian Empire

The Parthians, from the Parni tribe, challenged Seleucid rule and took control of Iran by conquering Babylonia in 142 BC. The Parthian Empire lasted for centuries but weakened due to civil wars.

Ardashir I overthrew the Parthians in 224 AD and founded the Sasanian Empire, which ruled Iran and much of the Near East. The Sasanians controlled modern Iran, Iraq, parts of the Arabian Peninsula, the Caucasus, the Levant, and parts of Central and South Asia.

The Sasanian Empire had a strong government and revived Zoroastrianism as a unifying force.

Medieval period

The Sasanian Empire often fought wars with the Byzantine Empire. These conflicts helped lead to the empire’s fall when the Rashidun Caliphate conquered it between 632 and 654.

Most Iranians later converted to Islam, though many Persian traditions continued under Islamic rule.

Early Islamic rule and regional resistance in Iran

After the Sasanian Empire fell in 651, Arab rulers from the Umayyad Caliphate took over. They adopted many Persian customs, especially in administration. Middle Persian remained the official language until Arabic was adopted in the late seventh century.

However, not all of Iran was under Arab control. Regions like Daylam, Tabaristan, and Mount Damavand were ruled by local leaders who resisted Arab attempts to take over.

The Abbasid revolution and Iranian Renaissance

Anti-Umayyad uprisings led to the Abbasid revolution in 747–750, which replaced the Umayyads with the Abbasids. Over time, the Abbasid caliphs lost power, leading to independent Iranian dynasties and a cultural revival known as the Iranian Intermezzo.

This period saw the rise of dynasties like the Tahirids, Saffarids, and Samanids. The Buyid dynasty later took control in Baghdad.

Islamization and Persianization

Iran’s conversion to Islam was gradual. By the end of the 11th century, most Iranians were Muslim. Persian rulers helped preserve and revive Persian language and culture, a process called Persianization.

Mongol invasions

See also: Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire and Mongol conquest of Persia and Mesopotamia

In the early 13th century, Mongols invaded Iran. Cities like Bukhara, Samarkand, Herat, Tus, and Nishapur were destroyed. The Mongols later captured Baghdad, ending the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258.

After Möngke Khan’s death, the Mongol Empire split. In Iran, Hulegu Khan took control. Under the Ilkhanid dynasty, Iran experienced a cultural revival. Ghazan Khan converted to Islam in the late 13th century.

After Ghazan’s nephew Abu Said died in 1335, the Ilkhanate broke into smaller states. The Black Death in the mid-14th century killed many people.

Timur and the rise of new powers

See also: Timurid conquests and invasions

Iran remained divided until Timur established the Timurid dynasty in 1370. Timur, from a Turkified Mongol tribe, conquered most of Iran. His campaigns were very destructive.

In 1387, Timur ordered the massacre of Isfahan. The Timurids ruled until 1452, when they lost control to the Qara Qoyunlu, who were later conquered by the Aq Qoyunlu.

Early modern period

Main articles: Safavid Iran, Afsharid Iran, Zand dynasty, Qajar Iran, Portuguese–Safavid wars, and Ottoman–Persian Wars

The Safavid Empire, founded by Ismail I in 1501, is considered the start of modern Iranian history. The Safavids reunified Iran and made Shia Islam the official religion. They ruled from 1501 to 1722, with a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736.

The Safavid government had a system of checks and balances. The shah kept an eye on officials through reports. French ambassador Jean Chardin noted that the shahs ruled strictly.

Rivalries in Khorasan led to an invasion by the Afghan Hotak dynasty in 1722, causing the Safavid Empire to collapse. The years between 1722 and the rise of the Qajar dynasty in 1789–1796 were marked by political chaos. The Safavids failed to return to power, while the Hotaks failed to take control. The Afsharid and Zand dynasties were established by Nader Shah and Karim Khan, respectively.

Nader Shah and the shifting balance of power

See also: Campaigns of Nader Shah

Nader Shah was a powerful military leader whose empire at its height included parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Oman, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, the North Caucasus, and the Persian Gulf. However, his military spending hurt the Iranian economy.

After Nader Shah’s death, Iran fell into chaos as army commanders fought for power. His family, the Afsharids, lost most of their land. The Zand family took control of much of Iran in the 1750s but never called themselves shahs, ruling instead as regents.

Rise of the Qajar dynasty and foreign interference

The Qajar dynasty grew stronger as they fought the Afsharids and Zands, eventually uniting Iran under Agha Mohammad Shah in 1789. He defeated the Zand dynasty in 1794 and was crowned in 1796.

In the 19th century, Iran lost territory in the Caucasus to the Russian Empire after the Russo-Persian Wars. Britain became involved in southern Iran to counter Russia’s influence. Drought, changes in farming, and poor leadership led to the Great Persian Famine of 1870–1871.

20th century up to the Iranian Revolution

Main article: Pahlavi Iran

Constitutional Revolution and the rise of the Pahlavi dynasty

The Persian Constitutional Revolution from 1905 to 1911 led to the creation of an Iranian parliament. After a coup in 1921, the Qajar dynasty was replaced by the Pahlavi dynasty under Reza Shah. He created an authoritarian government focused on nationalism, militarism, secularism, and anti-communism. Reza Shah modernised the country but ruled strictly until he was forced to abdicate in 1941.

To his supporters, his reign brought law and order, discipline, central authority, and modern amenities such as schools, trains, buses, radios, cinemas, and telephones. However, his rule was also seen as a corrupt police state.

World War II and post-occupation instability

Due partly to Nazi Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union, Iran expected Germany to win the war and become powerful on the Russian-Iranian border. Iran refused British and Soviet demands to expel German residents. In response, the Allies invaded in August 1941 and quickly defeated the weak Iranian army.

Iran became a key route for Allied aid to the Soviet Union. Reza Shah was deposed and replaced by his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied leaders guaranteed Iran’s post-war independence and boundaries.

Mosaddegh and the Shah's rule

See also: 1953 Iranian coup d'état

In 1951, Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh nationalised the British-owned oil industry, leading to the Abadan Crisis. Despite British pressure, nationalisation continued. Mosaddegh was removed in 1952 but reinstated by the Shah after a popular uprising. He briefly exiled the Shah in August 1953 after a failed coup.

On 19 August, a successful coup led by General Fazlollah Zahedi, aided by the US and Britain, removed Mosaddegh from power. He was arrested and tried for treason, sentenced to house arrest. His foreign minister was executed. Zahedi became prime minister and suppressed opposition to the Shah.

From then until the revolution, Iran was ruled autocratically by the Shah, with strong American support. Iran began economic, social, agrarian, and administrative reforms known as the White Revolution. Many Islamic leaders opposed these changes, and land reform had mixed results. By 1978, the Shah was very unpopular. Daily protests led to martial law. When protests continued, security forces fired on crowds in an event known as Black Friday.

Islamic Revolution

Protests against the Shah grew to include more than 10% of the country. Even secular and leftist groups supported Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the revolution’s leader. Under pressure, the Shah fled Iran, leaving the Regency Council in charge. Shapour Bakhtiar, the council’s head, invited Khomeini to return. However, Khomeini wanted to defeat the interim government and called for free elections. Violence broke out, and Bakhtiar fled Iran.

On 31 March 1979, a referendum approved changing from a monarchy to an Islamic republic. This created an assembly to draft a new constitution, with Khomeini becoming Supreme Leader in December 1979. Iran’s economy became more Islamic, laws and schools were changed, and Western influence was limited.

Khomeini era, Iran–Iraq War, and leadership transition

See also: Aftermath of the Iranian Revolution and Iran–Iraq War

The Shah, now out of power, went to the US for cancer treatment. Supporters of the revolution feared this was a step toward restoring the Shah. On 4 November 1979, Iranian students seized the US embassy, taking 52 hostages for 444 days until January 1981. During the Cultural Revolution from 1980 to 1983, opposition to Islamic values was removed.

Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded Iran on 22 September 1980, starting the Iran–Iraq War. Although Iraq made early gains, Iranian forces pushed back by 1982. Khomeini tried to spread the revolution to Iraq but accepted a UN-brokered truce in 1988 after a long and costly war.

Khamenei era

Further information: 2009 Iranian presidential election protests, Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, Assassination of Qasem Soleimani, Mahsa Amini protests, 2024 Iran–Israel conflict, Twelve-Day War, 2025–2026 Iranian protests, 2026 Iran War, Assassination of Ali Khamenei, and 2026 Iranian supreme leader election

On his deathbed in 1989, Khomeini appointed a council to name Ali Khamenei as the next Supreme Leader. Though Khamenei lacked Khomeini’s standing, he built support within the military and religious groups.

President Akbar Rafsanjani focused on rebuilding the economy. In 1997, reformist Mohammad Khatami was elected, promoting freedom of expression and better relations with other countries.

The 2005 election brought conservative Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to power. He faced questions from parliament about his presidency. In 2013, reformist Hassan Rouhani was elected, improving relations through diplomacy.

In 2015, Iran agreed to limit uranium enrichment in exchange for ending economic sanctions. The US left the deal in 2018, reimposing sanctions. In 2020, IRGC general Qasem Soleimani was killed by the US, leading to retaliation from Iran.

Hardliner Ebrahim Raisi became president in 2021. Iran increased uranium enrichment, joined international groups, supported Russia in its invasion of Ukraine, and restored relations with Saudi Arabia. In April 2024, Iran retaliated against an Israeli airstrike on its consulate in Damascus with a major drone and missile attack on Israel.

In May 2024, Raisi died in a helicopter crash, and reformist Masoud Pezeshkian was elected president. In October, Iran launched missiles at Israel in response to assassinations of leaders. Israel attacked Iranian military sites.

In May 2025, Iran began deporting Afghan migrants. In early 2025, Iran’s nuclear program advanced, drawing concern from analysts. Iran and the US began negotiations but made little progress. In June, the IAEA found Iran non-compliant, and Iran activated a new enrichment facility.

On 13 June 2025, Israel struck Iran, targeting nuclear sites and killing military leaders. Iran retaliated, leading to conflict. The US struck Iranian nuclear facilities, and Iran attacked US bases in Qatar. A ceasefire was agreed on 24 June after US pressure.

Since December 2025, mass protests have erupted in Iran over economic issues. As of January 2026, at least 12,000 protesters were killed amid an internet blackout. By 17 January, estimates suggested at least 16,500 killed and 330,000 injured.

On 28 February 2026, the US and Israel conducted coordinated strikes against Iran. The same day, Ali Khamenei was killed in Israeli airstrikes. On 8 March, Mojtaba Khamenei, his son, was elected Supreme Leader by the Assembly of Experts.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Iran

See also: Borders of Iran, Agriculture in Iran, List of mountains in Iran, and List of islands of Iran

Iran is a large country in West Asia. It covers 1,648,195 km². It shares borders with many places, including Armenia, the Azeri exclave of Nakhchivan, the Republic of Azerbaijan, the Caspian Sea, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, Iraq, and Turkey.

Iran has many mountains and beautiful landscapes. The Caspian Hyrcanian forests in the north are green and wet, while the east has deserts like the Kavir Desert and the Lut Desert. Iran also has forests and wildlife, with over 200 protected areas to help nature.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Iran

Iran has many kinds of weather. In the north near the Caspian Sea, it is mild and rainy. In the west, winters can be cold with snow. The east and center are dry and hot, especially in summer. The south near the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman is warm and wet in summer.

Biodiversity

See also: Wildlife of Iran, List of national parks and protected areas of Iran, and Forests of Iran

Iran has many plants and animals. Over 8,200 types of plants grow there. The country has forests and mountains, with animals like bats, foxes, wolves, and the rare Asiatic cheetah. Iran also has many birds, such as eagles and falcons. There are over 200 protected areas to keep these plants and animals safe.

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Iran and Politics of Iran

See also: Elections in Iran

Iran has a special kind of government where the Supreme Leader has the most power. This leader makes important decisions and chooses key leaders. The president, who is elected by people, has less power and handles everyday government work.

The country’s political system follows its constitution and mixes ideas from totalitarianism and authoritarianism. Iran does not rank high in measures of democracy, especially in areas like freedom of expression.

The president of Iran is the main government leader after the Supreme Leader. People vote for the president every four years, but candidates must be approved first. The president runs government work, signs international agreements, and plans the country’s budgets.

Presidential and parliamentary candidates need approval from a special group called the Guardian Council before they can run. This council checks that candidates follow the country’s laws and leadership.

The Supreme National Security Council helps make decisions about foreign policy. It was created to protect Iran’s interests and is led by the president, with final decisions made by the Supreme Leader.

The legislature, called the Islamic Consultative Assembly or Parliament, has 290 members voted in every four years. They make laws, approve treaties, and manage the national budget. All laws and candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council, which can also remove elected members.

The Expediency Discernment Council helps solve problems between the Parliament and the Guardian Council and advises the Supreme Leader.

Iran has relationships with many countries but does not recognize Israel. It has strong ties with Russia and China and is part of many international groups.

Iran’s military includes the Army, the Revolutionary Guard Corps, and the Police Command. Since 1925, all male citizens aged 18 must serve around 14 months in the military.

Iran has a large number of active military personnel and reservists. The Basij, a volunteer group within the Revolutionary Guard, has millions of members ready to help when needed.

Iran makes its own military equipment, such as tanks, missiles, and aircraft. The country has advanced missile abilities and works in cybersecurity.

Iran has faced criticism for its treatment of people. The government has been accused of arresting critics and limiting freedoms. The country has strict internet controls.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Iran

See also: Subsidies in Iran and Banking and insurance in Iran

Iran has a large economy and is very important in the world. It mixes different kinds of work, like government control of big industries, farming in villages, and small private shops and services. Services are the biggest part of the economy. Iran has lots of oil and gas, which makes it very important for energy. Many industries help build the Tehran Stock Exchange.

Tehran is the busy heart of Iran’s economy. Many workers and big factories are there. The Central Bank of Iran takes care of the money, called the Iranian rial. The government is trying to change how it manages money to make things better for everyone. Iran makes many things, like cars, food, and medicine. But some rules from other countries make it harder for Iran to trade.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Iran

Before a big health problem happened, tourism in Iran was growing fast. Many people from other countries visited Iran to see beautiful places, like Isfahan, Shiraz, and Mashhad. The government plans to invest lots of money in tourism.

Agriculture and fishery

Main article: Agriculture in Iran

A big part of Iran is good for farming. Iran grows many kinds of food, like apricots, cherries, dates, and pistachios. Iran also catches a lot of fish in seas and rivers. It is the biggest maker of a special food from fish eggs, called caviar.

Industry and services

Main article: Industry of Iran

Iran makes a lot of cars and is good at building things like dams, bridges, and roads. Many big factories are in Tehran. People in Iran also buy and sell things in markets, especially food. Iran is also good at making machines and mining useful minerals. It builds its own power plants and makes special kinds of power, like wind and solar.

Energy

Main article: Energy in Iran

See also: Petroleum industry in Iran

Iran has a lot of oil and gas, making it very important in energy. It makes a lot of oil and sells it to earn money. Iran also makes many things needed for oil and gas work, like machines and ships. Iran uses different kinds of power, like coal, oil, and natural gas. It also started using wind and solar power.

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Iran

Iran has done well in science and technology. Scientists in Iran have done important work in medicine. They also made robots and helped invent important tools. Iran has launched satellites into space and works with other countries on space projects.

Telecommunication

Main article: Communications in Iran

See also: Telecommunication Company of Iran and Iran Electronics Industries

Most of Iran’s phone and internet services are run by the government. Many people in Iran use mobile internet. Iran is good at getting internet to places far away. But the internet can be slow compared to some other countries.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Iran

Iran's population grew quickly from about 19 million in 1956 to around 85 million by February 2023. The number of children being born has dropped, so the population is growing more slowly. With many young people, the population is expected to keep growing slowly until it levels off around 105 million by 2050.

Iran has many people who have come from other countries, especially from Afghanistan and Iraq. The government must help all citizens with things like retirement, unemployment, and health care.

Iran has one of the fastest-growing city populations in the world. Most people live in the western part of the country, especially in the north, northwest, and west. Tehran, with about 9.4 million people, is the capital and largest city. Mashhad is the second-largest city and the capital of Razavi Khorasan province. Isfahan is the third-largest city and the capital of Isfahan province.

Ethnic groups

Main article: Ethnicities in Iran

People in Iran belong to many different groups. Persians are thought to make up about 51% of the population, and Azerbaijanis about 24%. Other groups include Gilaks and Mazanderanis, Kurds, Arabs, Lurs, Balochis, Turkmens, and smaller groups such as Armenians, Jews, Assyrians, Qashqai, and Shahsevan.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Iran

Most people in Iran speak Persian, which is the official language. Other languages spoken include Gilaki and Mazenderani, Talysh, Kurdish, and several dialects of Persian. Azerbaijani is widely spoken in Azerbaijan. Other minority languages include Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic, Arabic, and Circassian.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Iran

Religion in Iran (2016 census)

1. Islam (99.6%)
2. Christianity (0.16%)
3. Zoroastrianism (0.03%)
4. Judaism (0.01%)
5. Other religions (0.05%)
6. Unknown (0.16%)

Twelver Shi'a Islam is the official religion, followed by most people. Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism are recognized religions. Iran has the largest Jewish community outside Israel and the Middle East, and many Christians, most of Armenian background. The government has helped protect Armenian churches.

Education

Main article: Education in Iran

Education in Iran is organized by the government. Children go to school for 12 years, and after that, they can take an exam to go to university. Universities offer different levels of study. By 2016, about 86% of people aged 15 and older could read and write.

Health

Main article: Health in Iran

See also: Healthcare in Iran

Health care in Iran is provided by the government and private companies. Iran has a good system for preventing illnesses and has improved health for mothers and children. The country is known for its medical knowledge. Most Iranians have health insurance. However, with a growing population, there is a need for more health services and facilities.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Iran

Iran has a rich history in art, with strong traditions in areas such as architecture, painting, literature, music, metalworking, stonemasonry, weaving, calligraphy and sculpture. Influences from nearby cultures have shaped Iranian art, which has also influenced other styles around the world.

The history of architecture in Iran goes back thousands of years, with buildings that show beauty and smart design. Iran has many important old sites, and cities like Tehran have seen lots of new construction.

Iran's culture is also shown in its many World Heritage Sites, special places recognized for their importance. These include famous spots like Persepolis and Naghsh-e Jahan Square.

Iran is well-known for its beautiful carpets, made for thousands of years. These carpets are famous for their detailed designs and high quality.

Iran's literature is very old and rich, with famous poets like Rumi and Ferdowsi. Persian literature is considered one of the great literatures of the world.

Iran has many museums that show the country's history and art. The National Museum of Iran in Tehran is one of the most important museums in the world.

Iran has a long history of making music and dancing. Traditional instruments include string, wind, and percussion instruments. Dance has been part of Iranian life for thousands of years, with many different styles from different regions.

Iran's media is mostly controlled by the government, with the main news coming from state-run sources. Persian is the main language used in newspapers and online.

Iranian food includes many tasty dishes like kebab, pilaf, and stew. Meals often come with rice, meat, vegetables, and nuts, and are flavored with spices like saffron.

Iran is also known for its sports. Wrestling is a very popular sport, and Iran has produced many great wrestlers. Other popular sports include football, volleyball, and basketball. The country has many places for skiing and other outdoor activities.