Iraq

Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is located in the Middle East and is bordered by Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Iran, the Persian Gulf, Kuwait, Jordan, and Syria. The country has an area of 438,317 square kilometres and a population of over 46 million people. Baghdad, with over 8 million people, is the capital and largest city.

The area known as Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, was home to early cities and civilisations like Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia, and Assyria. This region is often called the cradle of civilisation because many important ideas and inventions, such as writing, the wheel, and the calendar, began there. After the Arab conquest in the 7th century, Iraq became a centre of learning and culture during the Islamic Golden Age, with Baghdad as a major hub.

Since gaining independence in 1932, Iraq has gone through many changes, including periods of growth and times of conflict. It has been a monarchy, a republic, and under different leaderships. In recent years, Iraq has faced challenges with stability and is now working to rebuild and grow stronger. Today, Iraq is a federal parliamentary republic with a rich mix of cultures and languages and is known for its large oil reserves.

Name

There are different ideas about where the name "Iraq" comes from. One idea links it to the ancient Sumerian city of Uruk. Another idea suggests it comes from a Middle Persian word meaning "lowlands."

The name "Iraq" has been used for a long time. Poets wrote about the "people of Iraq." Important leaders from history also talked about Iraq. Today, the country’s official name is the "Republic of Iraq."

History

Main articles: Mesopotamia, History of Mesopotamia, and History of Iraq

Iraq largely overlaps with the ancient region of Mesopotamia, often called the cradle of civilisation. The history of Mesopotamia goes back to very old times, continuing through the establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, after which the region became known as Iraq.

Bronze and Iron Age

Within its borders lies the ancient land of Sumer, which appeared between 6000 and 5000 BC. Sumer is recognised as the world's earliest civilisation, marking the beginning of cities, writing, and big buildings. Iraq's territory also includes the heartlands of the Akkadian, Neo-Sumerian, Babylonian, Neo-Assyrian, and Neo-Babylonian empires, which were important during the Bronze and Iron Ages.

Antiquity

After the Achaemenid conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE, Mesopotamia stayed a key part of the Achaemenid Empire, keeping its people and local ways. Cyrus the Great took titles like King of Babylon and King of Sumer and Akkad, while keeping the title King of Kings. Babylon became an imperial capital, and Aramaic became the common language for the empire.

After Alexander the Great's campaign in 331 BCE, Babylon gave up without a fight. Alexander wanted to make Babylon the capital of his empire, but this plan was stopped after his death in 323 BCE, and Seleucia became the capital instead. Under Seleucid rule, Mesopotamia stayed important for administration and economy. Babylonian traditions continued, including the shekel and Babylonian chronicles. Aramaic and Mesopotamian religious traditions stayed strong.

In later times, Mesopotamia was part of the Parthian Empire, which had many smaller kingdoms. During the Parthian and Sasanian periods, Ctesiphon merged with Seleucia to become a big city that served as the Sasanian capital, later known as al-Madāʾin. Under Sasanian rule, this area was organised as the province of Āsōristān, which matched the geography of Babylonia. The Iranic empires moved their capitals toward Mesopotamia, and the Iraqi Sawad became very important for state revenues and administration. When the Sasanians lost their capital Ctesiphon during the Arab conquests, their rule ended. After the conquest, Iraq became distinct from Syria.

Middle Ages

Main articles: Arab conquest of Mesopotamia, Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia, and Siege of Baghdad (1401)

After the conquest, the Rashidun caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib made Iraq more important by moving the caliphate from Medina to Kufa. Under Umayyad rule, the governor of Iraq often controlled much of the empire’s eastern areas. After the Battle of Karbala in 680, Iraq became the main place of Alid political opposition, which the Abbasid Caliphate used when they took power from Iraq.

Iraq was the centre of the Abbasid Caliphate even before Baghdad was built, and Abbasid rulers spent a lot on restoring and extending canals and cultivating land. With the founding of Baghdad in 762, Iraq became the political, economic, and intellectual heart during the Islamic Golden Age, home to places like the House of Wisdom. Abbasid Iraq produced the most state revenues, four times more than Egypt, thanks to the rich agriculture of southern Iraq. Large amounts of glazed pottery were made in Iraq and sold across the Indian Ocean. Abbasid culture in Iraq showed long-term Mesopotamian story traditions, seen in Muslim and Jewish texts.

From the tenth century, Iraq became politically divided as power moved from the Abbasid caliphs to local dynasties like the Hamdanids, Buyids, Uqaylids, and Mazyadids, who competed for control while getting formal approval from the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad. This ended with the Seljuk Empire capturing Baghdad in 1055, leaving the Abbasid caliphs as figureheads under Seljuk rule.

The pattern of local rule in Iraq was broken by the Mongol conquest in the thirteenth century. In 1258, Mongol forces captured and destroyed Baghdad, ending Abbasid rule in Iraq and causing big damage. Iraq became part of the Ilkhanate within the Mongol Empire. Under Ilkhanid rule, agriculture and city life in Iraq slowly recovered, and Iraq stayed a busy and active region into the late medieval period.

After Mongol rule ended in the 14th century, Iraq was controlled by the Jalayirids, a dynasty of Mongol origin ruling from Baghdad. Their rule was later replaced by the Qara Qoyunlu, a Turkoman group that took Baghdad in the early 15th century and ruled much of Iraq. In the late 15th century, the Aq Qoyunlu defeated the Qara Qoyunlu and took control of Iraq as part of a larger empire. This Turkmen rule ended in 1508 when Shah Ismail I took Baghdad and made Iraq part of the Safavid Empire.

Early Modern Period

Main articles: Ottoman Iraq, Portuguese–Safavid wars, and Safavid invasions of Basra

Iraq was taken by Sultan Suleiman I in 1534 and became part of the Ottoman Empire. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Iraq was a key front in the Ottoman–Safavid wars, with Baghdad changing hands several times until the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639 confirmed Ottoman control. Iraq was organised into the provinces of Baghdad, Basra, Mosul, and Shahrizor, which the Ottomans called Hıtta-i Irakiyye (“the Iraq region”).

From 1749 to 1831, Iraq was ruled by a Mamluk dynasty of Georgian origin with much freedom while still formally obeying the Ottoman sultan. After this dynasty was overthrown in 1831, Iraq started to be more centrally controlled from Baghdad. Under Ottoman Viceroys Namık Pasha and Midhat Pasha, reforms were made in military, administration, taxes, land records, infrastructure, education, and communications, which helped lay the groundwork for modern Iraq.

Iraq stayed under Ottoman control until the First World War, when the British started the Mesopotamian campaign. The campaign led to the occupation of Baghdad in 1917, and in 1920 Ottoman Iraq ended with the creation of the British Mandate of Mesopotamia.

Modern Iraq

Main articles: Mandatory Iraq and Kingdom of Iraq

Iraq's modern history started after World War I, as the area came out of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Arab forces, hoping for independence, helped break the Ottoman hold on the Middle East, but their dream of a united, independent Arab state did not happen. Even though agreements were made with Hussein bin Ali, the Sharif of Makkah, European powers had other plans. After the British stopped supporting a unified Arab state, Hussein's son, Faisal, briefly made the Kingdom of Syria in 1920, including parts of what are now Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan, and Syria. But this kingdom did not last, broken by local opposition and the military power of France, which had been given control over Syria.

The British brought together three former Ottoman areas—Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra—into the Mandate of Mesopotamia, which became Iraq. Under British rule, tensions grew as locals resisted foreign control. In 1921, the Cairo Conference, led by British leaders including Winston Churchill and T.E. Lawrence, decided that Faisal, then living in London, would become the king of Iraq. When he became king, Faisal worked to build Iraq’s foundations. His rule laid the bases of modern Iraq.

On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and others did a coup and set up a government that liked Germany and Italy. During the Anglo-Iraqi War, the United Kingdom attacked Iraq for fear that the government might stop oil supplies to Western nations because of its ties to Germany and Italy. The war began on 2 May, and the British, with loyal Assyrian Levies, beat Al-Gaylani’s forces, ending the fight on 31 May.

Republic and Ba'athist Iraq

Main articles: First Republic of Iraq and Ba'athist Iraq

Brigadier General and nationalist Abd al-Karim Qasim led a coup known as the 14 July Revolution in 1958. This revolt was strongly against outside control and monarchy. Qasim ruled Iraq through military power and in 1958 started taking land from a few people and giving it to the state to share out. He was removed in a February 1963 coup by the Ba'ath Party. After he died in 1966, his brother Abdul Rahman Arif took over.

The 17 July Revolution in 1968 removed Arif and brought the Iraqi Ba'ath Party to power, with Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr as president of Iraq. But the government slowly came under the control of Saddam Hussein, who was then vice-president. In the 1970s, the leadership offered peace to Assyrians in Iraq and asked exiled Iraqi Jews to return. The government started free healthcare and education, took control of oil, supported women’s rights, and built infrastructure.

Post-invasion Iraq

After the 11 September 2001 attacks, US President George W. Bush began planning to remove Saddam, calling Saddam’s Iraq part of an “axis of evil”. The US Congress approved a joint resolution allowing the use of armed force against Iraq. On 20 March 2003, the US-led group invaded Iraq as part of the global war on terror. Within weeks, coalition forces took over much of Iraq, and the Iraqi Army started fighting with guerrilla methods. After the fall of Baghdad in early April, Saddam’s government fully lost control of Iraq.

Insurgency and Civil war

The Coalition Provisional Authority broke up the Iraqi military and removed Ba'athists from the new government. Fighters fought against the coalition and the new government. Saddam was caught and put to death.

2019-2021 protests

Main article: 2019–2021 Iraqi protests

Protests started across Iraq in October 2019, asking for big changes, an end to the party-based system, stopping non-state groups, and less interference from other countries. Even with heavy actions, the movement stayed together asking for changes in institutions and more responsibility. In 2020, the prime minister Adil Abdul Mahdi left because of the protests. He was replaced by Mustafa al-Kadhimi, whose time saw the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, which hurt the economy because of falling oil prices.

Period of stability (2022-present)

In October 2022, the Council of Representatives chose Abdul Latif Rashid as president, and Mohammed Shia al-Sudani became Prime Minister. Since October 2022, Prime Minister al-Sudani has led a time of relative political, security, and economic calm. Government leaders have pointed to more regional talks, better international links, and economic plans like the Iraq–Europe Development Road project as signs of getting better. In August 2023, al-Sudani started the Iraq Development Fund to help the private sector and support important social and environmental projects. In 2024, Iraq had unexpected rain that —according to the Ministry of Water Resources— increased Iraq’s water stores by 10%, helping the drought problem. In February 2025, the Iraq Development Fund had collected $7bn in foreign direct investments, and signed deals with countries like the United Kingdom and Japan. In May 2025, Iraq’s Ministry of Planning said the jobless rate went from 17% in 2022 to 13% in 2025. A report on 24 July 2025 given to the United Nations Security Council said ISIS “is at its weakest” in Iraq since it started.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Iraq

Iraq is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Iran, the Persian Gulf, Kuwait, Jordan, and Syria. It covers a large area and has many people.

The land has deserts, mountains, and grassy plains. Two important rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, flow through Iraq. They help people grow food. The weather is usually hot and dry, with warm summers and cool winters. Some parts in the north can have cold winters with snow. Iraq faces challenges from changes in the climate, like hotter temperatures and less rain. People are working to use clean energy and protect nature.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Iraq

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of Iraq

Government and politics

Main articles: Politics of Iraq, Federal government of Iraq, and Elections in Iraq

The Republic of Iraq is a democratic, federal parliamentary republic. It has three main parts to its government: the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Iraq is divided into regions, governorates, districts, and subdistricts. The president is the ceremonial head of state, while the prime minister leads the government and controls the armed forces.

Baghdad is the capital city and home to important government buildings and foreign embassies.

Under the current constitution, Iraq held nationwide parliamentary elections. All three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted, as did Assyrian and Turcoman minorities.

Military and law enforcement

Iraqi security forces serve under the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of Defense. The Ministry of Defense includes the Iraqi Army, the Iraqi Air Force, the Iraqi Air Defence Command and the Iraqi Navy. The armed forces were rebuilt after the US invasion of Iraq, with help from American military aid.

The Iraqi air force supports ground forces with surveillance and moving troops. The navy protects shorelines and inland waterways.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Iraq

After the Iraq War, Iraq worked to improve relations with neighboring countries. Iraq joined the Chemical Weapons Convention in 2009. Iraq has worked to balance its relationships with countries like Iran, Turkey, and Syria.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Federal regions of Iraq, Governorates of Iraq, Districts of Iraq, and Subdistricts of Iraq

Iraq is divided into nineteen governorates. These governorates are divided into districts, which are further divided into subdistricts. There are 120 districts and 394 subdistricts in Iraq.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Iraq

Iraq has lots of oil, which helps its economy grow. Most money in Iraq comes from selling oil. Because of this, many people work in jobs not related to oil, and not many women work outside the home. Iraq uses the Iraqi dinar as its money.

The economy has been hard because of wars, but it is getting better. Some parts of Iraq are doing well, building new things and growing. Iraq is also good at growing crops and has many places to visit, like old cities and important religious spots.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Iraq

Iraq used to be a popular place for tourists, but wars made it hard. Now, as things get safer, people are starting to visit again. Iraq has many old cities and important places to see, like Babylon and Ur. People also visit holy places for their religion. Some old palaces built by a past leader are now open for visitors to see.

Transport

Main article: Transport in Iraq

Iraq has many roads for cars and trucks to travel. There are also trains that connect different parts of the country. Iraq’s ports help it sell oil to other countries. Many airports help people fly in and out of Iraq.

Oil and energy

Main articles: Oil reserves in Iraq and Energy in Iraq

Iraq has a lot of oil, which is very important for its economy. The country has lots of oil, but it has been hard to use it because of wars and other problems. Iraq works with other countries to help get more oil out of the ground.

Water supply and sanitation

Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Iraq

Wars made it hard for many cities in Iraq to have clean water and proper bathrooms. Now, most people have access to clean water, but some areas still struggle.

Infrastructure

Main article: Investment in post-invasion Iraq

Iraq is building new homes and cities to solve housing problems. The government plans to build many new cities in different parts of the country. These cities will help people have places to live. Iraq is also working on big projects to improve roads and ports, working with other countries to make these happen.

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Iraq and List of largest cities of Iraq

Iraq's population has grown over time. In 2021, the country had about 43.5 million people. Iraq is made up of many different groups of people.

Cities and towns

Main article: List of cities in Iraq

Ethnic groups

Iraq's people are mostly Arab, but there are also Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Yazidis, Shabaks, Armenians, Mandaeans, Circassians, and Kawliya.

A report suggests that in 2015, there were many Arabs, some Sunni Kurds, Iraqi Turkmens, Black Iraqis, Christians, Yazidis, Shabaks, Roma, Mandaeans, Circassians, people of the Baháʼí Faith, and a few Jews.

According to one source, Iraq is 75–80% Arab and 15–20% Kurds. Other groups make up the rest. However, some believe these numbers might not be completely accurate because of past issues with counting people correctly.

The historic Assyrian Quarter in Baghdad once had many Armenians, but most left after wars began. Today, only a few remain. There are also Marsh Arabs in southern Iraq.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Iraq

The main languages in Iraq are Mesopotamian Arabic and Kurdish. Other languages include the Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialect of Turkish, Neo-Aramaic languages, Mandaic, Shabaki, Armenian, Circassian, and Persian.

Before 2003, Arabic was the only official language. Now, both Arabic and Kurdish are official languages. Other languages like Turkmen, Syriac, and Armenian are also recognized. Regions can choose to make other languages official if most people agree.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Iraq

See also: Irreligion in Iraq

Further information: Islam in Iraq, Christianity in Iraq, and Judaism in Iraq

Most people in Iraq follow Abrahamic religions. In 2020, about 97% of Iraqis followed Islam, with most being Shia or Sunni. Christianity made up a small part, and there were also people who followed Yazidism, Mandaeism, and other religions.

Christianity in Iraq has old roots. After 2003, many Christians had to leave their homes.

Iraq was home to one of the oldest Jewish communities. Many Jews left Iraq after Israel was created in 1948. Today, only a few Jews remain.

There are also small groups of Mandaeans, Shabaks, Yarsan, and Yazidis. Before 2003, there were more of these groups, but their numbers have changed over time.

Diaspora and refugees

Main articles: Refugees of Iraq and Assyrian exodus from Iraq

Many Iraqis have moved to other countries. After the invasion of Iraq in 2003, nearly two million Iraqis left the country. In 2021, about 1.1 million were displaced inside Iraq.

In 2011, nearly 3 million Iraqis had been displaced, with many in neighboring countries. After the Syrian Civil War began in 2011, many Iraqis in Syria returned to Iraq. Also, many Syrian refugees came to Iraq to escape their war.

Health

Main article: Health in Iraq

In 2010, Iraq spent about 6.84% of its money on healthcare. In 2008, there were about 7 doctors and 14 nurses for every 10,000 people. Life expectancy was about 68 years.

Iraq had a good healthcare system in the 1970s, but wars and conflicts have made it harder to provide care. In 2024, a new hospital opened in Baghdad, the first in nearly 40 years. The government is building new hospitals and healthcare centers.

Education

Main article: Education in Iraq

Before 1990 and after 2003, Iraq had a good education system. But it has had problems since then. Enrollment numbers have increased, but there are still challenges.

Education gets only 5.7% of government spending, which means schools don't have enough money. Some children drop out of school, and many repeat grades.

In conflict areas, many schools were closed or used for other purposes. Efforts are being made to reopen schools, like in Mosul.

In 2024, the government started building 790 new schools with help from China. This is part of a plan to build 1,000 schools. The Iraqi Prime Minister also announced plans to build 400 more schools with help from the private sector.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Iraq

Iraq has a very old and rich culture that goes back thousands of years. Iraq is known for its traditions in writing, building, music, dancing, painting, weaving, making pottery, and working with stone and metal. The culture of Iraq is one of the oldest and most important in the world.

Iraq’s history includes many influences from different groups of people. The country is famous for its poets, builders, painters, and sculptors. Iraq also makes beautiful handmade items like rugs and carpets.

Art

Ancient Iraq had many different kinds of art. During a time called the Abbasid Dynasty, artists created beautiful pottery and decorated objects with writing. One special style of art called the Baghdad School showed everyday life.

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Iraq

Iraq has a long history of building. Cities like Baghdad and Mosul have many important buildings, including old mosques, churches, and synagogues. Modern architects from Iraq have designed many famous buildings. In recent years, Iraq has built modern places like shopping malls and tall towers.

Important cultural places in Baghdad include the Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra and the National Theatre of Iraq. There are also schools for music and art, and museums with treasures from ancient Iraq.

Literature

The literature of Iraq has a very long history. It includes stories about gods, heroes, and everyday life. One famous story is the Epic of Gilgamesh, which is one of the oldest known books. During a time called the Abbasid Caliphate, Baghdad was a center for learning with many writers and scholars.

Music

Main article: Music of Iraq

Iraq is known for its traditional music called maqam, which has been passed down for generations. This music is recognized worldwide as important cultural heritage. In the early 1900s, many famous musicians in Iraq were part of a radio ensemble. The music included instruments like the oud, qanun, and percussion.

Media

Main articles: Media of Iraq, Television in Iraq, Cinema of Iraq, and List of Iraqi films

Iraq had one of the first television stations in the Middle East, starting in the 1950s. After a big change in 2003, there was growth in radio, television, and newspapers in Iraq.

Cuisine

Iraqi food has roots going back thousands of years to ancient cultures. Today, Iraqi cuisine uses many vegetables, grains, and fruits, and favorite meats include chicken and lamb. Rice is a common part of many dishes, and bulgur wheat is also widely used.

Sport

Main article: Sport in Iraq

Football is the most popular sport in Iraq. Other popular sports include basketball, swimming, weightlifting, bodybuilding, boxing, kickboxing, and tennis. The Iraq Football Association manages the national football team and has been part of international football since 1950. Iraq won the 2007 AFC Asian Cup and has participated in several World Cup tournaments.