SafekipediaJapanese phonology
Adapted from Wikipedia · Adventurer experience
Japanese phonology is the system of sounds used in the pronunciation of the Japanese language. It helps us understand how words are spoken.
The standard way of speaking Japanese is based on the Tokyo dialect.
There are different ideas about exactly how many individual sounds, called phonemes, are in Japanese. Most people agree there are at least 12 distinct consonants, and 5 distinct vowels: /a, e, i, o, u/. In Japanese, the length of vowels and consonants can change the meaning of a word, and this length is measured in units called mora. Only certain groups of consonants are allowed to come together in words.
Japanese also uses a special way of changing pitch to show meaning. By raising or lowering the voice on certain syllables, you can tell different words apart. The sounds in Japanese have been shaped by many influences, including words from Chinese and borrowed words from other languages.
Lexical strata
Japanese sounds can change depending on where the words come from. This is why experts talk about different "layers" or groups of words in the language.
Yamato
Main article: Wago
These are the original, native Japanese words. They follow some sound rules that other word groups do not.
Mimetic
Main article: Japanese sound symbolism
Japanese has special words that copy sounds or feelings. These words also come from the native language but have their own special sound patterns.
Sino-Japanese
Main article: Sino-Japanese vocabulary
These words came from Chinese over many years, starting around the 6th century AD. They are a big part of Japanese vocabulary, in both writing and speaking. Most of these words are made from smaller sound parts called morphemes, which usually have one or two beats, called moras. These words are often written using Chinese characters called kanji.
Foreign
Main article: Loanwords in Japanese
These are words borrowed from other languages, especially Western languages, mostly after the 16th century. Many came into Japanese in the 20th century. These words often have sound mixes that are new to Japanese, leading to new ways to write them.
Consonants
Different people who study language think about the sounds in Japanese in different ways. Some say there are only 12 consonant sounds, while others say there are 16 or even 21. This depends on how they look at certain sounds. In some ways of looking, glides or semivowels are not counted as consonant sounds.
Phonetic notes
Details of articulation
- Sounds like t, d, n can be said in slightly different ways, such as with the tip of the tongue against the teeth or the roof of the mouth.
- Sounds like ts, s, dz~z are made with the tip of the tongue against the roof of the mouth.
- Sounds like tɕ, ɕ, dʑ~ʑ are made with the tongue against the roof of the mouth and the palate.
- The sound w is usually said to be made in the back of the mouth, but new studies suggest it may be made more forward with the lips rounded.
- The sound h changes depending on what sound comes after it and can be said in different ways.
- The sound r can change a lot depending on where it is in a word and which area someone is from, and can be said as a tap, a lateral, or even a trill.
Voice onset time
At the start of a word, the quiet sounds p, t, k are a little bit puffy — less so than in English, but more than in Spanish. In the middle of words, these sounds usually are not puffy.
A study found that after a pause, word-starting b, d, ɡ may be said with little or no puff, while p, t, k are more puffy. Vowels after p, t, k at the start of words often start with a higher pitch compared to vowels after b, d, ɡ, even when the latter are not fully voiced.
Lenition
The sounds b, d, ɡ can have weaker ways of being said that sound like voiced fricatives, especially between vowels. These weaker ways can happen after a vowel in the middle of a word, or when a word starting with b, d, ɡ comes after a word ending in a vowel with no pause.
Moraic consonants
Some consonant sounds are called "moraic" because they count for a mora, a unit of timing or length. How moraic consonants are understood is debated. One way looks at them as special "mora sounds," while another way sees them as the end of a syllable for other consonant sounds.
Moraic nasal
The moraic nasal can be seen as a nasal consonant at the end of a syllable. It is found only after a vowel and can be followed by a consonant, a vowel, or the end of a word. How it sounds changes depending on the sound that follows it.
Moraic obstruent
There is a difference between short (or single) and long (or double) consonant sounds. Double consonants last longer compared to single consonants. A double consonant can be seen as a consonant at the end of a syllable followed by a consonant at the start of a syllable.
Voiced affricate vs. fricative
The difference between certain voiced fricatives and voiced affricates is not made in Standard Japanese. In areas where they mix, the changing sound can be written as one sound, though some see it as another. The chance of hearing the affricate sound was higher in certain speaking conditions.
Voiceless coronal affricate
In common words, a certain sound can be seen as a version of t before u. In words from other languages, however, this sound can come before other vowels.
Palatalized consonants
Most consonants have palatalized versions. Pairs of palatalized and non-palatalized consonants are different before the back vowels a, o, u, but are used in different places before the front vowels.
Alveolo-palatal sibilants
The alveolo-palatal sibilants work, at least in the past, as the palatalized versions of certain coronal obstruents. Original ti came to be said as a certain sound, and original si came to be said as another, among others.
Voiceless bilabial fricative
In common words, the voiceless bilabial fricative happens only before u. In this place, it can be seen as a version of h. In words from other languages, it can come before other vowels or before j.
Voiced bilabial fricative
Spellings with the kana vu have been used in careful writings to show a voiced labiodental fricative in other languages. The real saying of a foreign "v sound" is usually not different from a Japanese b.
Velar nasal onset
For some speakers, the velar nasal can come as a start instead of the voiced velar plosive in certain cases. This start, called bidakuon, is mostly found inside words, where it may come after a vowel or after a moraic nasal. It is argued whether this start is a separate sound or a version of g.
Distribution of [ŋ] vs. [ɡ]
At the start of a word, all speakers use g in almost all cases. However, after certain small words, such as the subject marker ga, some speakers say ŋ. In the middle of a word, certain speakers always use ŋ.
Sociolinguistics of [ŋ]
The use of the velar nasal start ŋ in Tokyo Japanese was decreasing as of 2008, and seems to have been falling since 1940. Sayings with ŋ are usually less common for younger speakers, and even though the use of ŋ was once taught as a feature of standard Japanese, sayings with g now seem to be more respected. How often ŋ is used also changes depending on where someone lives.
| [ompa] | 音波, onpa, 'sound wave' | (hiragana: おんぱ, three moras long) |
| [daɰ̃atsɯ] | 弾圧, dan'atsu, 'oppression' | (hiragana: だんあつ, four moras long) |
| [saɴ] | 三, san, 'three' | (hiragana: さん, two moras long) |
| bilabial [m] before /p, b, m/ | [sammai] | 三枚, sanmai, 'three sheets' |
| velar [ŋ] before /k, ɡ/ | [saŋkai] | 三回, sankai, 'three times' |
| dorso-palatal [ŋʲ] before [kʲ, ɡʲ] | [ɡeŋʲkʲi] | 元気, genki, 'healthy' |
| lamino-alveolar [n] before [t, d, ts, dz, n] | [sanneɴ] | 三年, sannen, 'three years' |
| lamino-alveolopalatal [ɲ̟] before [tɕ, dʑ, ɲ̟] | [saɲ̟tɕoː] | 三兆, sanchō, 'three trillion' |
| apico-alveolar [n̺] or postalveolar [n̠] before /r/ | [san̺ɾɯi], [ɕin̠d̠ɹ̝̆i] | 三塁, sanrui, 'third base', 真理, shinri, 'truth' |
| Moraic nasal | Non-moraic /n/ | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| [kaɰ̃.a.ke] | 寒明け, kan'ake, 'the end of the coldest season' | [ka.na.ke] | 金気, kanake, 'metallic taste' |
| [kaɰ̃.juː] | 勧誘, kan'yū, 'solicitation; inducement' | [ka.ɲuː] | 加入, kanyū, 'becoming a member of a group' |
| Singleton | Geminate | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [aka] | 垢, aka, 'dirt' | (あか, two moras long) | [ak̚ka] | 悪化, akka, 'worsening' | (あっか, three moras long) |
| [isai] | 異才, isai, 'genius' | (いさい, three moras long) | [issai] | 一歳, issai, 'one year old' | (いっさい, four moras long) |
| [satɕi] | 幸, sachi, 'good luck' | (さち, two moras long) | [sat̚tɕi] | 察知, satchi, 'inference' | (さっち, three moras long) |
| /t/ > [ts] | /tuɡi/ > [tsɯɡi] | 次, tsugi, 'next' |
| /mi/ > [mʲi] | /umi/ > [ɯmʲi] | 海, umi, 'sea' |
| /mj/ > [mʲ] | /mjaku/ > [mʲakɯ] | 脈, myaku, 'pulse' |
| /ɡj/ > [ɡʲ] | /ɡjoːza/ > [ɡʲoːza] | ぎょうざ, gyōza, 'fried dumpling' |
| /ri/ > [ɾʲi] | /kiri/ > [kʲiɾʲi] | 霧, kiri, 'fog' |
| /hi/ > [çi] | /hito/ > [çito] | 人, hito, 'person' |
| /hj/ > [ç] | /hjaku/ > [çakɯ] | 百, hyaku, 'hundred' |
| /s/ > [ɕ] | /sio/ > [ɕi.o] | 塩, shio, 'salt' |
| /z/ > [dʑ~ʑ] | /mozi/ > [modʑi ~ moʑi] | 文字, moji, 'letter, character' |
| /t/ > [tɕ] | /tiziN/ > [tɕidʑiɴ] ~ [tɕiʑiɴ] | 知人, chijin, 'acquaintance' |
| /sj/ > [ɕ] | /isja/ > [iɕa] | 医者, isha, 'medical doctor' |
| /zj/ > [dʑ~ʑ] | /ɡozjuː/ > [ɡodʑɯː ~ ɡoʑɯː] | 五十, gojū, 'fifty' |
| /tj/ > [tɕ] | /tja/ > [tɕa] | 茶, cha, 'tea' |
| [matanai] 'wait' (negative) | vs. | [matɕimasu] 'wait' (polite) |
| [kasanai] 'lend' (negative) | vs. | [kaɕimasu] 'lend' (polite) |
| in the middle of a morpheme | at the start of a word | at the start of a morpheme, in the middle of a word |
|---|---|---|
| はげ, hage, 'baldness' | 外遊, gaiyū, 'overseas trip' | |
| [haŋe] or [haɡe] or [haɣe] | [ɡaijɯː], but not *[ŋaijɯː] | sometimes [ŋ], sometimes [ɡ]~[ɣ] |
| [haŋe] | ||
| [haɡe] or [haɣe] | [ɡ] or [ɣ] |
Vowels
All Japanese vowels can be short or long. Long vowels sound longer than short vowels. In everyday talking, two short vowels next to each other often sound like one long vowel. But in careful talking, they might sound a little different.
When two same vowels are next to each other because of word endings, there can sometimes be a small pause or a small change in sound between them. This happens, for example, in words like sato-oya (里親) but not in satō-ya (砂糖屋).
In fast talking, two short vowels next to each other often blend into one long vowel. This can happen between words or parts of words, like in kai-in (会員) or Tōkyō ni iku (東京に行く).
Long vowels can only be stressed on their first part, while two short vowels can be stressed on either part. There are different ways to explain the difference between long vowels and two short vowels in Japanese sound patterns.
| [obasaɴ] | 伯母さん, obasan, 'aunt' | [obaːsaɴ] | お祖母さん, obāsan, 'grandmother' |
| [keɡeɴ] | 怪訝, kegen, 'dubious' | [keːɡeɴ] | 軽減, keigen, 'reduction' |
| [çirɯ] | 蛭, hiru, 'leech' | [çiːrɯ] | ヒール, hīru, 'heel' |
| [tokai] | 都会, tokai, 'city' | [toːkai] | 倒壊, tōkai, 'destruction' |
| [kɯ] | 区, ku, 'district' | [kɯː] | 空, kū, 'void' |
| [satoːja] | 砂糖屋, satō-ya, 'sugar shop' |
| [satoːja]~[sato.oja] | 里親, sato-oya, 'foster parent' |
| [sɯꜜːɾi] | 数理, sūri, 'mathematical theory' |
| [sɯꜜːɾi]~[sɯꜜ.ɯɾi] | 酢売り, su-uri, 'vinegar seller' |
| [ɕi̥ka] | /sika/ | 鹿, shika, 'deer' |
| [kɯ̥tsɯꜜ] | /kutuꜜ/ | 靴, kutsu, 'shoe' |
| [kɯ̥saꜜ] | /kusaꜜ/ | 草, kusa, 'grass' |
| [kɯꜜɕi̥kɯmo] | /kuꜜsikumo/ | 奇しくも, kushikumo, 'strangely' |
| [reki̥ɕiteki] | /rekisiteki/ | 歴史的, rekishi-teki, 'historic' |
| [takitsɯ̥keꜜrɯ] | /takitukeꜜru/ | 焚き付ける, takitsukeru, 'to kindle' |
| [ko̥koꜜɾo] | 心, kokoro, 'heart' |
| [ho̥koɾiꜜ] | 誇り, hokori, 'pride' |
| [hḁkaꜜ] | 墓, haka, 'tomb' |
| [se̥kkakɯ] | 折角, sekkaku, 'on purpose' |
| [ke̥ɕoꜜː] | 化粧, keshō, 'makeup' |
| /niQsiNbasi/ | [ɲiɕːimbaɕi] | 日進橋, Nisshinbashi | vs. | /nisisiNbasi/ | [ɲiɕi̥ɕimbaɕi] or [ɲiɕiɕimbaɕi] | 西新橋, Nishi-shinbashi |
| /keQsai/ | [kesːai] | 決済, 'check out' | vs. | /kesusai/ | [kesɯ̥sai] or [kesɯsai] | 消す際, 'while erasing' |
| /eN/ > [eɴ] ~ [ʔeɴ] | 円, en, 'yen' |
| /kisi/ > [kiɕiʔ] | 岸, kishi, 'shore' |
| /u/ > [ɯʔ ~ ʔɯʔ] | 鵜, u, 'cormorant' |
Prosody
Japanese words are studied as being made up of special units called moras. Unlike syllables in English, each mora takes about the same amount of time to say. A mora can be a simple vowel (V) or a consonant plus a vowel (CV). There are also special moras like /N/ and /Q/.
Japanese is sometimes called a mora-timed language because each mora usually takes the same time. However, this isn’t always strict—some sounds can be a bit shorter. Pitch also plays a role in Japanese sounds, but it doesn’t usually change how long a mora is.
Japanese uses a system where words can have different pitches to change their meaning. A special mark (ꜜ) shows where the pitch drops in a word. The rest of the word follows predictable pitch patterns. This helps tell words apart.
Different areas in Japan have their own ways of using pitch, but the Tokyo dialect is often used as a standard example.
| Mora type | Example | Japanese | Moras per word |
| V | /o/ | 尾, o, 'tail' | 1-mora word |
| jV | /jo/ | 世, yo, 'world' | 1-mora word |
| CV | /ko/ | 子, ko, 'child' | 1-mora word |
| CjV | /kjo/1 | 巨, kyo, 'hugeness' | 1-mora word |
| R | /R/ in /kjo.R/ or /kjo.o/ | 今日, kyō, 'today' | 2-mora word |
| N | /N/ in /ko.N/ | 紺, kon, 'deep blue' | 2-mora word |
| Q | /Q/ in /ko.Q.ko/ or /ko.k.ko/ | 国庫, kokko, 'national treasury' | 3-mora word |
| /o.sa.mu/ | osamu | > | /o.sa.tja.N/ | osachan |
| /ta.ro.ː/ | taroo | > | /ta.ro.tja.N/ | tarochan |
| /jo.ː.su.ke/ | yoosuke | > | /jo.ː.tja.N/ | yoochan |
| /ta.i.zo.ː/ | taizoo | > | /ta.i.tja.N/ | taichan |
| /ki.N.su.ke/ | kinsuke | > | /ki.N.tja.N/ | kinchan |
| /ti/ | chi | > | /ti.ː.tja.N/ | chiichan |
| /ka.yo.ko/ | kayoko | > | /ka.ː.tja.N/ | kaachan |
| /a.tu.ko/ | atsuko | > | /a.Q.tja.N/ | atchan |
| /mi.ti.ko/ | michiko | > | /mi.Q.tja.N/ | mitchan |
| /bo.ː/ | boo | > | /bo.Q.tja.N/ | botchan |
| /a.ni/ | ani | > | /a.N.tja.N/ | anchan |
| /me.ɡu.mi/ | megumi | > | /me.N.tja.N/ | menchan |
| /no.bu.ko/ | nobuko | > | /no.N.tja.N/ | nonchan |
| /a.ki.ko/ | akiko | > | /a.ko.tja.N/ | akochan |
| /mo.to.ko/ | motoko | > | /mo.ko.tja.N/ | mokochan |
| Syllable type | Examples | |
|---|---|---|
| Morphologically complex forms | Loanwords | |
| (C)(j)VRN | English: green → Japanese: グリーン, romanized: gurīn | |
| (C)(j)V₁V₂N | English: Spain → Japanese: スペイン, romanized: supein | |
| (C)(j)VRQ | 通った, tootta, 'pass-PAST' 東京っ子, tōkyōkko, 'Tokyoite' | |
| (C)(j)V₁V₂Q | 入って, haitte, 'enter-GERUNDIVE' 仙台っ子, sendaikko, 'Sendai-ite' | |
| C)(j)VNQ | ロンドンっ子, rondonkko, 'Londoner', ドラえもんっぽい, doraemonppoi, 'like Doraemon' | |
| C)(j)VRNQ | ウィーンっ子, uiinkko, 'Wiener', ウィーンって言った, uiintte itta, 'Vienna, (s)he said' | |
Phonotactics
Japanese phonotactics are the rules for how sounds are used in Japanese words. The language has special ways that sounds can come together, especially in syllables and moras (small parts of sound).
Japanese syllables often start with a consonant and then a vowel, or sometimes just a vowel. Some syllables can begin with a special glide sound. The language also has moraic consonants, which are extra sounds added to syllables.
When foreign words are used in Japanese, they are changed to fit Japanese sound patterns. This sometimes means adding extra vowels to make them easier to say. These patterns help make Japanese words sound the way they do.
| /-a/ | /-i/ | /-u/ | /-e/ | /-o/ | /-ja/ | /-ju/ | /-jo/ | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| /∅-/ | /a/ | /i/ | /u/ [ɯ] | /e/ | /o/ | /ja/ | /ju/ [jɯ] | /jo/ | |
| /k-/ | /ka/ | /ki/ [kʲi] | /ku/ [kɯ] | /ke/ | /ko/ | /kja/ [kʲa] | /kju/ [kʲɨ] | /kjo/ [kʲo] | |
| /ɡ-/ | /ɡa/ | /ɡi/ [ɡʲi] | /ɡu/ [ɡɯ] | /ɡe/ | /ɡo/ | /ɡja/ [ɡʲa] | /ɡju/ [ɡʲɨ] | /ɡjo/ [ɡʲo] | |
| /s-/ | /sa/ | /si/ [ɕi] | /su/ [sɨ] | /se/ | /so/ | /sja/ [ɕa] | /sju/ [ɕɨ] | /sjo/ [ɕo] | |
| /z-/ | /za/ [(d)za] | /zi/ [(d)ʑi] | /zu/ [(d)zɨ] | /ze/ [(d)ze] | /zo/ [(d)zo] | /zja/ [(d)ʑa] | /zju/ [(d)ʑɨ] | /zjo/ [(d)ʑo] | |
| /t-/ | /ta/ | /ti/ [tɕi] | /tu/ [tsɨ] | /te/ | /to/ | /tja/ [tɕa] | /tju/ [tɕɨ] | /tjo/ [tɕo] | |
| /d-/ | /da/ | (/di/) [(d)ʑi] | (/du/) [(d)zɨ] | /de/ | /do/ | (/dja/) [(d)ʑa] | (/dju/) [(d)ʑɨ] | (/djo/) [(d)ʑo] | |
| /n-/ | /na/ | /ni/ [ɲi] | /nu/ [nɯ] | /ne/ | /no/ | /nja/ [ɲa] | /nju/ [ɲɨ] | /njo/ [ɲo] | |
| /h-/ | /ha/ | /hi/ [çi] | /hu/ [ɸɯ] | /he/ | /ho/ | /hja/ [ça] | /hju/ [çɨ] | /hjo/ [ço] | |
| /b-/ | /ba/ | /bi/ [bʲi] | /bu/ [bɯ] | /be/ | /bo/ | /bja/ [bʲa] | /bju/ [bʲɨ] | /bjo/ [bʲo] | |
| /p-/ | /pa/ | /pi/ [pʲi] | /pu/ [pɯ] | /pe/ | /po/ | /pja/ [pʲa] | /pju/ [pʲɨ] | /pjo/ [pʲo] | |
| /m-/ | /ma/ | /mi/ [mʲi] | /mu/ [mɯ] | /me/ | /mo/ | /mja/ [mʲa] | /mju/ [mʲɨ] | /mjo/ [mʲo] | |
| /r-/ | /ra/ [ɾa] | /ri/ [ɾʲi] | /ru/ [ɾɯ] | /re/ [ɾe] | /ro/ [ɾo] | /rja/ [ɾʲa] | /rju/ [ɾʲɨ] | /rjo/ [ɾʲo] | |
| /w-/ | /wa/ [β̞a] | ||||||||
| Marginal combinations mostly found in Western loans | |||||||||
| [ɕ-] | [ɕe] | ||||||||
| [(d)ʑ-] | [(d)ʑe] | ||||||||
| [t-] | [tʲi] | [tɯ] | [tʲɨ] | ||||||
| [tɕ-] | [tɕe] | ||||||||
| [ts-] | [tsa] | [tsʲi] | [tse] | [tso] | |||||
| [d-] | [dʲi] | [dɯ] | [dʲɨ] | ||||||
| [ɸ-] | [ɸa] | [ɸʲi] | [ɸe] | [ɸo] | [ɸʲɨ] | ||||
| [j-] | [je] | ||||||||
| [β̞-] | [β̞i] | [β̞e] | [β̞o] | ||||||
| Special moras | |||||||||
| /V-/ | /N/ [ɴ, m, n, ɲ, ŋ, ɰ̃] | ||||||||
| /V-C/ | /Q/ (geminates the following consonant) | ||||||||
| /V-/ | /R/ [ː] | ||||||||
| /hoː.oː.o.o.oː/ [hoː.oː.o.o.oː] | hōō o oō (鳳凰（ほうおう）を追（お）おう) | 'let's chase the fenghuang' |
| /toː.oː.o.oː.oː/ [toː.oː.o.oː.oː] | tōō o ōō (東欧（とうおう）を覆（おお）おう) | 'let's cover Eastern Europe' |
Morphophonology
Japanese morphology is generally agglutinative rather than fusional. Japanese has many morphophonological processes that change the shape of words when they are combined. Various forms of sandhi exist; the Japanese term for sandhi is ren'on (連音).
Rendaku
Main article: Rendaku
In Japanese, sandhi is seen in rendaku – consonant mutation of the first consonant of a word from unvoiced to voiced when it is in the middle of a word. This difference is marked in spelling with dakuten, as in ka, ga (か／が). When this combines with the yotsugana mergers, notably ji (じ／ぢ) and zu (ず／づ), the spelling is morphophonemic.
Yamato gemination or prenasalization
Certain processes, such as onbin sound changes, have produced voiceless geminates in Yamato words. Gemination can come from emphasis, compounding, or verb conjugation. Sequences of a moraic nasal /N/ and a voiced consonant replace voiced geminate obstruents in native Standard Japanese words.
For example, adverbs from a mimetic root and the suffix -ri may show gemination, as in nikkori from niko 'smiling'. Adverbs from roots with voiced consonants show a moraic nasal instead of gemination, such as shonbori from shobo 'lonely'.
Sino-Japanese gemination
When the second mora of a Sino-Japanese word is つ, tsu, く, ku, ち, chi or き, ki and it is followed by a voiceless consonant, this mora is sometimes replaced by the sokuon っ, forming a geminate consonant:
- 一 (いつ itsu) + 緒 (しょ sho) = 一緒 (いっしょ, issho)
- 学 (がく gaku) + 校 (こう kō) = 学校 (がっこう, gakkō)
Gemination can also affect Sino-Japanese words that ended in ふ, fu and now end in long vowels.
Most of these changes come from Middle Chinese words ending in /t̚/, /k̚/ or /p̚/, which gained a prop vowel when said alone but were assimilated to the next consonant in compounds.
Renjō
Further information: and Late Middle Japanese § Medial gemination
Sandhi also happens in renjō (連声), where a terminal /N/ or /Q/ on one word leads to /n/ or /t̚/ being added to the start of a following word starting with a vowel or semivowel, as in ten + ō → tennō (天皇: てん + おう → てんのう). Examples:
First syllable ending with /N/
- 銀杏 (ginnan): ぎん (gin) + あん (an) → ぎんなん (ginnan)
- 観音 (kannon): くゎん (kwan) + おむ (om) → くゎんのむ (kwannom) → かんのん (kannon)
- 天皇 (tennō): てん (ten) + わう (wau) → てんなう (tennau) → てんのう (tennō)
First syllable ending with /N/ from original /m/
- 三位 (sanmi): さむ (sam) + ゐ (wi) → さむみ (sammi) → さんみ (sanmi)
- 陰陽 (onmyō): おむ (om) + やう (yau) → おむみゃう (ommyau) → おんみょう (onmyō)
First syllable ending with /Q/
- 雪隠 (setchin): せつ (setsu) + いん (in) → せっちん (setchin)
- 屈惑 (kuttaku): くつ (kutsu) + わく (waku) → くったく (kuttaku)
Vowel fusion
1. usually not reflected in spelling
During Late Middle Japanese, vowel changes happened. The vowel /u/ often fuse with a vowel before it, creating a long vowel. These changes are still important in grammar and education. For example, the "volitional/tentative" form of verbs uses this fusion.
These fusions caused some verb forms to disappear. Dictionaries no longer list certain forms.
In modern Japanese, sequences like /ae, ai, oi/ can fuse into [eː ~ ɛː] in some speech. This happens in non-Tokyo dialects and some Tokyo speech. Examples include nai → nē (ない → ねえ) and tai → tē (たい → てえ).
Onbin
Main article: Onbin
Further information: Japanese grammar § Euphonic changes (音便, onbin); and Onbin in verb conjugations
onbin (音便; euphonic sound change) is a feature in Japanese. It refers to historical sound changes that reduce, lenite, or coalesce sounds. These changes continue to appear in some areas of Japanese morphology, such as verb forms or compound verbs.
In some cases, onbin changes happened within a word.
One type of onbin deletes certain consonants before /i/ or /u/, creating vowel sequences or long vowels.
Another type of onbin creates moraic consonants /Q/ or /N/ in some native Japanese words.
Types
Types of onbin are named after the resulting mora. If the result is /i/, it is called i-onbin (イ音便); if /u/, u-onbin (ウ音便); if /Q/ (促音, sokuon), sokuonbin (促音便); and if /N/ (撥音, hatsuon), hatsuonbin (撥音便).
Historically, sokuonbin happened in verb conjugation when morae like /ti, ɾi, si, pi/ were followed by /t/. The high vowel /i/ was reduced, and the consonant assimilated with /t/.
Grammatical sokuonbin is common in eastern dialects, while western ones favor u-onbin.
hatsuonbin happened when morae like /mi, bi, ni/ were followed by /t/. Vowel reduction and consonant assimilation occurred.
onbin can happen in certain historical environments.
Polite adjective forms
Further information: Japanese grammar § Polite forms of adjectives
The polite adjective forms show sound changes. These use the continuative form, -ku, which drops the k to become -u. The vowel may combine with the preceding vowel.
This is common in everyday terms from i-adjectives ending in -ai changing to -ō. Examples include:
- arigatō (有り難う、ありがとう; Thank you), from arigatai (有り難い、ありがたい; (I am) grateful).
- ohayō (お早う、おはよう; Good morning), from hayai (早い、はやい; (It is) early).
- omedetō (お目出度う、おめでとう; Congratulations), from medetai (目出度い、めでたい; (It is) auspicious).
| /tu/ つ, tsu | Systematically becomes っ /Q/ before any voiceless obstruent (/p~h t k s/). |
| /ku/ く, ku | Systematically becomes っ /Q/ before /k/. The numeral /roku/ also becomes /roQ/ before /p~h/. Otherwise, remains /ku/. |
| /ti/ ち, chi | May become っ /Q/ before any voiceless obstruent, but some morphemes, such as the numerals /siti/ and /hati/, do not consistently undergo this change. Only a small number of Sino-Japanese characters have a reading with /ti/ that is in common use. |
| /ki/ き, ki | May become っ /Q/ before /k/, but this is not systematic; many words show variation between /ki/ and /Q/. The form /seki/~/seQ/ (which occurs as a reading of various etymologically unrelated morphemes) shows a higher tendency to undergo gemination than other Sino-Japanese forms ending in /ki/. |
| Archaic | Modern |
|---|---|
| あ＋う (a + u) あ＋ふ (a + fu) | おう (ō) |
| い＋う (i + u) い＋ふ (i + fu) | ゆう (yū)1 |
| う＋ふ (u + fu) | うう (ū) |
| え＋う (e + u) え＋ふ (e + fu) | よう (yō) |
| お＋ふ (o + fu) | おう (ō) |
| お＋ほ (o + ho) お＋を (o + wo) | おお (ō) |
| auxiliary verb む (mu) | ん (n) |
| medial or final は (ha) | わ (wa) |
| medial or final ひ (hi), へ (he), ほ (ho) | い (i), え (e), お (o) (via wi, we, wo, see below) |
| any ゐ (wi), ゑ (we), を (wo) | い (i), え (e), お (o)1 |
Earlier domestic phonology
During the late Edo period and Meiji era, people studied Japanese sounds using a method called fanqie. This method came from sounds in Middle Chinese. It splits a sound into two parts: the beginning and the ending.
For example, the Japanese word for "east" [tuŋ] was split using three Chinese characters. One showed the beginning sound, another the ending sound, and the third was the sound being studied. In Japanese, these characters were called the "father character" (父字, chichiji), the "mother character" (母字, hahaji), and the "child character" (子字, koji).
People also used ideas from Chinese to describe Japanese sounds, like "clear sound" for sounds without special marks, and "muddy sound" for sounds with a special mark called dakuten. Other ideas included "rushed sound" for short sounds and "open sound" and "closed sound" for different kinds of vowel sounds.
Related articles
This article is a child-friendly adaptation of the Wikipedia article on Japanese phonology, available under CC BY-SA 4.0.