Sumer

Sumer was the earliest known civilization. It was in the southern part of Mesopotamia, which is now south-central Iraq. It began during the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Ages, between the 5th and 4th millennium BC. Like nearby Elam, Sumer is considered one of the cradles of civilization, along with places like Egypt, the Indus Valley, the Erligang culture of the Yellow River valley, Caral-Supe, and Mesoamerica.

The people of Sumer lived between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. They were good farmers who grew lots of grain and other crops. Having more food than they needed helped them build towns and cities. The world's oldest known writings came from Sumerian cities like Uruk and Jemdet Nasr. These writings date back to between about 3350 and 2500 BC, after a time known as proto-writing that started around 4000 BC.

Name

The term "Sumer" comes from the Akkadian name for the people who lived in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerians called their land "Kengir," meaning "Country of the noble lords."

Later, the Akkadians, who spoke a different language and took over the Sumerian city-states, gave the land its main historical name. The exact way the name "Sumer" developed is still not fully known. Other ancient cultures had their own names for the same area.

Origins

Historians believe that Sumer was first settled between around 5500 and 3300 BC by people from West Asia who spoke the Sumerian language. This language was very different from others nearby.

Some thinkers have suggested that the Sumerians might have come from North Africa, but most evidence points to farming starting in the Fertile Crescent. Others have linked the Sumerians to groups like the Hurrians or Urartians, or even to the island of Bahrain, called Dilmun in old stories. However, these ideas are not widely accepted.

Before the Sumerians, people known as Proto-Euphrateans or Ubaidians lived in the area. They were the first to improve the land for farming, start trading, and create things like woven cloth, leather goods, metalwork, stone buildings, and pottery.

Sumerian cities began to form during the Uruk period in the 4th millennium BC. The city of Eridu is thought to be one of the oldest cities. Later, Sumer was taken over by Akkadian rulers, but the Sumerian language stayed important for religious uses.

Archeological discovery

The Sumerians were unknown in the early days of archaeology. A scholar named Jules Oppert first used the word "Sumer" in a talk in 1869. The first big excavations of Sumerian cities began in 1877 at Girsu by a French scientist named Ernest de Sarzec. Other important digs happened at Nippur and Shuruppak by scientists from many countries in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Books about these discoveries were written by scientists like Léon Heuzey, François Thureau-Dangin, and Arno Poebel.

City-states in Mesopotamia

Further information: List of cities of the ancient Near East and Geography of Mesopotamia

In the late 4th millennium BC, Sumer had many independent city-states. These cities were separated by canals and boundary stones. Each city-state had a temple for its special god or goddess. The city was led by a priestly leader (ensi) or a king (lugal). The king played a big role in the city's religious events.

One famous place is the Anu Ziggurat and White Temple at Uruk. The ziggurat was a pyramid-like building made around 4000 BC. The White Temple was built on top of it around 3500 BC. This design may have influenced the building of the Egyptian pyramids, which were built later, around 2600 BC.

History

Main article: History of Sumer

The Sumerian city-states became powerful in ancient times called the Ubaid and Uruk periods. Written records from Sumer go back to the 27th century BC, but history stays unclear until around the 23rd century BC. This is when we can more easily read the records and understand what happened.

The Akkadian Empire was the first to unite much of Mesopotamia in the 23rd century BC. After the Gutian period, the Ur III kingdom also united parts of northern and southern Mesopotamia. This ended due to invasions around the start of the second millennium BC. The Amorite rulers lasted until around 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia came under Babylonian control.

• New Stone Age: around 10,000 – around 5000 BC
  • Ubaid period: around 6500 – around 4100 BC
• Copper Age: around 5000 – around 3300 BC
  • Uruk period: around 4100 – around 3100 BC
    • Uruk XIV–V phases: around 4100 – around 3300 BC
    • Uruk IV phase: around 3300 – around 3100 BC
• Early Bronze Age I: around 3300 – around 3000 BC
  • Jemdet Nasr period (Uruk III phase): around 3100 – around 2900 BC
    • Uruk III phase: around 3100 – around 2900 BC
• Early Bronze Age II: around 3000 – around 2700 BC
  • Early Dynastic period around 2900 – around 2334 BC
    • Early Dynastic I period: around 2900 – around 2800 BC
    • Early Dynastic II period: around 2800 – around 2600 BC
    • Early Dynastic IIIa period: around 2600 – around 2500 BC
    • Early Dynastic IIIb period: around 2500 – around 2334 BC
• Early Bronze Age III: around 2700 – around 2200 BC
  • Akkadian period: around 2334 – around 2154 BC
    • Akkad dynasty (Sargon)
• Early Bronze Age IV: around 2200 – around 2100 BC
  • Gutian period: around 2154 – around 2119 BC
    • Uruk IV dynasty
    • Gutian dynasty
• Middle Bronze Age I: around 2100 – around 2000 BC
  • Ur III period: around 2119 – around 2004 BC
    • Uruk V dynasty
    • Ur III dynasty
• Middle Bronze Age II A: around 2000 – around 1750 BC
  • Isin-Larsa period: around 2004 – around 1736 BC
    • Isin I dynasty
    • Larsa dynasty
• Middle Bronze Age II B: around 1750 – around 1650 BC
  • Old Babylonian period: around 1736 – around 1475 BC
    • Sealand dynasty

Ubaid period

Main article: Ubaid period

The Ubaid period is known for its special style of painted pottery that spread across Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. The oldest signs of people living there come from Tell el-'Oueili, though older sites might exist but haven’t been found yet. This culture likely came from the Samarran culture in northern Mesopotamia. It’s not clear if these were the same people as the later Uruk culture. A story about gods giving gifts of civilization to Inanna, goddess of Uruk, might show the change from Eridu to Uruk.

Uruk period

Main article: Uruk period

The change from the Ubaid to the Uruk period shows a shift from painted pottery made at home to many kinds of unpainted pottery made by experts. The Uruk period continued and grew from the Ubaid period, with pottery being the main visible change.

By the Uruk period, around 4100 – around 2900 BC, trade along canals and rivers helped large temple-centered cities grow. These cities had over 10,000 people and used specialized workers. Sumerian cities used workers captured from hilly areas. The Uruk period’s culture spread far, affecting people around it. Sumerian cities couldn’t keep faraway colonies by force.

Sumerian cities were likely led by priest-kings, helped by councils of elders. There’s little proof of big wars or professional soldiers then. Uruk became the world’s most urban city, with over 50,000 people. The Sumerian king list includes early rulers, some of whom may be legendary.

The Uruk period ended with a dry time called the Piora oscillation, which lasted from around 3200 – around 2900 BC.

Early Dynastic Period

Main articles: Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia) and First Dynasty of Ur

The dynastic period started around 2900 BC. It marked a shift from temples led by elders to more secular leaders called Lugal. This period included famous figures like Dumuzid, Lugalbanda, and Gilgamesh. Sumer’s culture stayed in southern Mesopotamia, though rulers began to expand into nearby areas.

The earliest known king from records is Etana of Kish. The first king proven by archaeology is Enmebaragesi of Kish, mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh. This time saw more wars. Cities built walls and grew larger as villages disappeared.

1st Dynasty of Lagash

Main article: Lagash

The Lagash dynasty, from around 2500–2270 BC, is known from monuments and artifacts. Though short, Eannatum of Lagash built one of the first empires, controlling most of Sumer and parts of Elam and the Persian Gulf. His rule used strict policies. His empire fell after his death.

Later, Lugal-zage-si of Umma took over Lagash, then Uruk, claiming control from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. He was the last Sumerian king before Sargon of Akkad.

Akkadian Empire

Main article: Akkadian Empire

The Akkadian Empire began around 2334–2154 BC, started by Sargon of Akkad. The Akkadian language appears in king names from around 2800 BC. Old Akkadian texts date to around 2500 BC. Akkadian was most used during Sargon’s rule, but many records were still in Sumerian.

Akkadian and Sumerian were both spoken for about 1,000 years, but by 1800 BC, Sumerian was mainly a language for scholars and scribes.

Gutian period

Main article: Gutian dynasty of Sumer

Around 2193 – around 2119 BC (middle chronology)

The Gutian people came from the Zagros Mountains. They became powerful as the Akkadian Empire weakened. After Shar-Kali-Sharri died around 2218 – around 2193 BC, the Gutians took over Akkadian cities, including the capital Akkad by 2193 BC. The Akkadian Empire fell in 2154 BC, marking Gutian power. Little is known about the Gutians. The Gutian period ended when Utu-hengal of Uruk defeated the last Gutian king Tirigan, starting the 5th dynasty of Uruk. Soon after, Ur-Nammu of Ur overthrew Utu-hengal and started the Third Dynasty of Ur in 2112 BC.

2nd Dynasty of Lagash

Main article: Lagash

Around 2200–2110 BC (middle chronology)

After the Akkadian Empire fell to the Gutians, Gudea of Lagash rose to power and continued the practices of earlier kings. Gudea and his descendants supported art and left many artifacts.

Ur III period

Main article: Third Dynasty of Ur

Later, the Third Dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi (around 2112 – around 2004 BC, middle chronology) was once called a “Sumerian renaissance.” The area was becoming more Akkadian-speaking, with Amorites founding local powers like Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, and later Babylonia.

The last of these briefly ruled southern Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, while the Old Assyrian Empire ruled the north from the late 21st century BC. Sumerian stayed a language for schools and religious use, much like Latin in medieval Europe.

Fall and transmission

This time matches a big move of people from southern to northern Mesopotamia. The land’s ability to grow food was hurt by too much salt in the soil. During the Akkadian and Ur III times, farmers switched from wheat to barley, which can handle salt better, but it wasn’t enough. From 2100 BC to 1700 BC, the population in this area dropped by nearly three-fifths. This weakened the areas where Sumerian was spoken and strengthened areas where Akkadian was spoken. Sumerian became just a language for books and religious rites, like Latin in medieval Europe.

After an Elamite attack on Ur under Ibbi-Sin (around 2028 – around 2004 BC), Sumer came under Amorite rule, starting the Middle Bronze Age. The independent Amorite states from the 20th to 18th centuries are called the “Dynasty of Isin” in the Sumerian king list, ending with Babylonia under Hammurabi around 1800 BC.

Sometimes, later rulers of Assyria and Babylonia used the old title “King of Sumer and Akkad,” like Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria after around 1225 BC.

Population

Uruk, one of Sumer's biggest cities, may have had about 50,000 to 80,000 people at its peak. With other cities and farmers, Sumer's total population might have been between 800,000 and 1.5 million. At that time, the world had about 27 million people.

The Sumerians spoke a special language that is not related to other languages. Some experts think earlier people lived in the area and influenced the Sumerians, but the archaeological record shows that the culture kept going without big changes from early times. The Sumerian people farmed land made rich by mud from the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers.

Some archaeologists believe the first Sumerian farmers came from the north after learning how to farm with water. Others think the Sumerians were local people who had always lived near the water.

The closest modern-day people to the Sumerians are the Marsh Arabs.

Culture

Social and family life

In early Sumer, pottery was very common. There were special jars for honey, butter, oil, and wine, which was probably made from dates. Some jars had pointed feet, while others were flat-bottomed. Beds, stools, and chairs were used, and knives, drills, and wedges were known tools.

There is a lot of information about Sumerian music. Lyres and flutes were played, including famous examples like the Lyres of Ur.

Sumerian culture was led by men and had different levels of society. The Code of Ur-Nammu, one of the oldest law codes, shows us how society was organized. Below the king, people were either free or slaves. Women could own property, run businesses, and had their rights protected by courts. Marriages were usually arranged by parents.

Language and writing

The most important discoveries in Sumer are many clay tablets written in cuneiform script. Sumerian writing was a big step in creating records and stories. The writing started as simple pictures and later became wedge-shaped marks on clay. Hundreds of thousands of texts in Sumerian have survived, including letters, receipts, laws, hymns, prayers, stories, and daily records. Libraries of clay tablets have been found.

A famous example of cuneiform writing is the Epic of Gilgamesh, a long poem found in the ruins of Uruk. It tells the story of a king named Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu. The Sumerian language is unique and does not belong to any known language family. Akkadian, another language from the same area, is part of the Semitic language family.

Religion

The Sumerians believed in many gods and showed respect for the forces of nature. They thought the world began with sacred marriages between male and female divine beings.

Sumerians believed in many gods, each connected to a different city. Some important gods included An, the god of the sky; Enki, the god of wisdom and water; Enlil, the god of wind and rain; Inanna, the goddess of love and war; Utu, the sun god; and Sin, the moon god. These gods formed the main group, but there were hundreds of other lesser gods.

Sumerians thought the Earth was a flat field with four corners. They believed the afterlife was a dark place where people lived forever in sadness. The universe was divided into four parts: the north with hill-dwelling people, the west with nomads, the south with a trading land, and the east with a rival people.

Agriculture and hunting

The Sumerians started farming around 5000–4500 BC. They grew crops like barley, wheat, dates, onions, garlic, lettuce, leeks, and mustard. They also raised sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs. They used oxen to carry heavy loads and donkeys for transportation.

The Sumerians were among the first people to brew beer. They made different kinds of beer from wheat, barley, and mixed grains. Beer was very important to them.

Sumerian farming depended on irrigation. They used tools like the shaduf, canals, channels, dykes, weirs, and reservoirs to water their fields. Because of frequent floods, they had to repair canals often.

Art

The Sumerians were skilled artists. They made beautiful objects from clay and decorated them with fine stones like lapis lazuli, marble, and diorite, as well as metals like gold, silver, copper, and bronze. Some famous artworks include the Lyres of Ur, considered the world’s oldest surviving stringed instruments.

Architecture

Sumerian buildings were made from mudbrick because the area had few trees and minerals. Over time, buildings were torn down and rebuilt, creating hills called tells. The most famous Sumerian buildings are the ziggurats, large layered platforms that supported temples. Sumerians also developed the arch, which helped them build strong domes.

Mathematics

The Sumerians developed a complex system of measurement around 4000 BC. This led to the creation of arithmetic, geometry, and algebra. From around 2600 BC, they wrote multiplication tables on clay tablets and solved geometry and division problems. The earliest traces of Babylonian numerals date back to this time. Around 2700–2300 BC, they used an abacus and a place value numeral system. They were also the first to calculate the area of a triangle and the volume of a cube.

Economy and trade

Discoveries of obsidian from Anatolia, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, beads from Bahrain, and seals from the Indus Valley show a wide trade network centered on the Persian Gulf. Imports to Ur came from many places.

The Epic of Gilgamesh mentions trade with distant lands for goods like wood. Cedar from Lebanon was highly prized. Resin found in the tomb of Queen Puabi at Ur indicates trade as far as Mozambique.

The Sumerians used slaves, though they were not a major part of the economy.

Military

The frequent wars among Sumerian city-states helped develop military technology and techniques. The first detailed war recorded was between Lagash and Umma around 2450 BC. It shows soldiers carrying spears and wearing helmets.

The Sumerian military used carts pulled by onagers. These early chariots were less effective in combat than later designs. The cart was made of a woven basket, and the wheels had a solid three-piece design.

Sumerian cities were surrounded by defensive walls. They engaged in siege warfare between their cities.

Technology

Examples of Sumerian technology include the wheel, cuneiform script, arithmetic and geometry, irrigation systems, Sumerian boats, a lunisolar calendar, bronze, leather, saws, chisels, hammers, braces, bits, nails, pins, rings, hoes, axes, knives, lancepoints, arrowheads, swords, glue, daggers, waterskins, bags, harnesses, armor, quivers, war chariots, scabbards, boots, sandals, harpoons, and beer. The Sumerians had three main types of boats:

• clinker-built sailboats stitched together with hair, featuring bitumen waterproofing
• skin boats constructed from animal skins and reeds
• wooden-oared ships, sometimes pulled upstream by people and animals walking along the nearby banks

Legacy

Sumer was an important early civilization that left many lasting influences. They were among the first people to use the wheel, which started as a potter's tool and later led to vehicles and mill wheels. The Sumerians created one of the earliest writing systems called cuneiform, which was used for many purposes like keeping records, writing letters, and tracking stars.

They were also skilled in math, using a special number system that mixed base 10 and base 6. This system later influenced how numbers were used in many places. Sumerians were among the first to study the stars, grouping them into patterns that were later used by others. They also set up some of the earliest rules and systems for running cities and keeping track of important information.