Caligula

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, known as Caligula, was the third Roman emperor. He ruled from AD 37 until he was assassinated in AD 41. Caligula was born into a famous family in AD 12, two years before Tiberius became emperor. As a young child, he traveled with his parents to Germania, where soldiers called him "Caligula," meaning "little boot," because of the small military boots he wore.

After his father, the general Germanicus, died, Caligula's family faced many difficulties in Rome. When Tiberius died in AD 37, Caligula became emperor at the age of 24. During his time as ruler, he built many public works like racetracks, theatres, and roads to help the people of Rome. He also started building two important aqueducts, the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus.

Caligula’s reign was short but eventful. He faced challenges such as abandoning plans to invade Britain and placing his statue in the Temple in Jerusalem. In AD 41, Caligula was killed in a plot by members of the Praetorian Guard, senators, and other leaders. His death led to his uncle Claudius becoming the next emperor, marking the end of the male line of the Julii Caesares but not the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which continued until the rule of his nephew, the Emperor Nero.

Early life

See also: Julio-Claudian family tree

Caligula was born in Antium on 31 August AD 12. He was the third of six children of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. Germanicus was a grandson of Mark Antony, and Agrippina was the granddaughter of Augustus.

When he was very young, Caligula went with his father on military trips in Germania. He wore tiny soldier clothes, including small boots called caligae, which made the soldiers call him Caligula, meaning "little boot." Sadly, Germanicus became ill and passed away when Caligula was just seven. Later, Caligula and his family faced difficult times in Rome.

Capri

In the year 31, Caligula's brother Nero passed away while far away from Rome. Caligula was placed under the care of the Roman emperor Tiberius at a special place called Villa Jovis on the island of Capri.

During this time, Caligula made a friend named Naevius Sutorius Macro, who was an important helper to Tiberius. Macro had helped stop another official named Sejanus who wanted too much power. Macro made sure Tiberius trusted Caligula. A writer named Philo said Macro helped and protected Caligula.

In 33, Caligula's mother and another brother named Drusus also passed away while they were far from Rome. That same year, Tiberius arranged for Caligula to marry a woman named Junia Claudilla, the daughter of a powerful man in Rome named Marcus Junius Silanus. Sadly, Junia and her baby died soon after they were born.

In 35, Tiberius chose Caligula and his grandson, Tiberius Gemellus, to be possible future leaders of Rome. Although Tiberius seemed healthy at the time, he had concerns about Caligula's character and whether he could be a good ruler. Caligula learned to hide his true feelings during this time, which likely helped keep him safe.

Emperor

Early reign

When Tiberius, the former Roman emperor, passed away in AD 37, Caligula was named emperor. This happened on the day before a festival called Liberalia. Some people thought Caligula might have been involved in Tiberius’ death, but others believed it was natural. Caligula was declared emperor by the Praetorian guard and later confirmed by the Roman Senate.

As emperor, Caligula made many changes quickly. He was only 25 years old and had not been very involved in politics before. He received all the powers that past emperors like Augustus and Tiberius had built up over time. He showed respect to the Senate at first but later started making decisions without them. He honored his father, Germanicus, by creating portraits and renaming the month of September after him. He also gave special privileges to his sisters and grandmother.

Public profile

Caligula enjoyed many activities popular with the common people, such as watching gladiator fights, chariot races, and plays. He even trained with gladiators and hosted big games. He supported certain teams and players openly, which was unusual for someone in his position.

Public reform and finance

Caligula made some changes to how Rome was run. He allowed the common people more say in choosing leaders and gave money to those who needed it. However, he also spent a lot of money on building projects and gave expensive gifts to his friends, which caused financial problems.

Treason trials

Later in his rule, Caligula had difficult times with the Senate. He accused some senators of plotting against him and punished them. This led to tension and mistrust between him and the Senate.

Provinces

In different parts of the Roman Empire, Caligula dealt with various issues. In places like Judaea and Egypt, there were conflicts between different groups. In Germany, he tried to strengthen Rome’s control but faced challenges. He also expanded Roman rule into areas like Britannia and Mauretania.

Religion

Caligula showed interest in religious matters. He took part in religious duties seriously and sometimes dressed up as gods during performances. While some people thought he wanted to be treated as a god, others believe he just enjoyed the theatrical aspects.

Assassination and aftermath

On 24 January AD 41, the emperor Caligula was killed by a group of soldiers, including two leaders of his guard. Many people were upset with Caligula because he treated some of them badly and used cruel methods.

After Caligula’s death, some senators hoped to return to older ways of ruling Rome without an emperor. However, most people were surprised by the killing and did not celebrate it.

The soldiers who killed Caligula also hurt his wife and their young daughter, but his uncle, Claudius, was hidden and later became the new emperor. Claudius made sure those responsible for the killing were punished, but he did not allow Caligula to be dishonored officially. Some statues of Caligula were changed to look like other emperors instead.

Personal life

Caligula had a fragile health as a child, and as an adult, he often felt faint and had trouble sleeping. He would sometimes fall asleep during meals and only sleep a few hours each night. Though he grew stronger with time, he was not very athletic.

His life included several marriages for political reasons. His first wife passed away during childbirth. He later married others, but his last marriage to Caesonia was for love. They had a daughter together.

Mental condition

There is no reliable evidence about the mental state of Caligula during his life. Some writers suggest he may have had medical conditions that affected his behavior, such as mania, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, encephalitis, meningitis, or epilepsy. However, these are modern ideas and not proven facts.

His actions as emperor were often seen as harsh or cruel, possibly because he felt he had to protect himself after losing his family at a young age. Some believe his behavior was a result of the pressures of ruling an empire, rather than any illness.

Contemporary historiography

We do not know many facts about the rule of Caligula because most information from that time has been lost. Two of the most important writers who told us about Caligula were Suetonius and Cassius Dio. Suetonius wrote about Caligula’s life in a way that grouped events together instead of putting them in order. Dio wrote a history that tried to put events in order, but it was not very consistent.

Other writers like Philo and Seneca also wrote about Caligula, but their stories focused more on other events or people, and they often showed Caligula in a bad light. Many other histories written by people like Tacitus, Fabius Rusticus, and Cluvius Rufus have been lost over time. We also know that Caligula’s sister, Agrippina the Younger, wrote about his rule, but that book has not survived either. Because of this, we have only pieces of information about Caligula’s time as ruler, and most of what we have does not show him in a good way.

Modern depictions

In film and series

Caligula has been shown in many movies and TV shows. Welsh actor Emlyn Williams was set to play him in a film from 1937 that was never finished. He appeared in a 1968 TV series called The Caesars, played by Ralph Bates. In the 1950s, American actor Jay Robinson played Caligula in two big movies. Later, John Hurt portrayed him in a 1976 TV mini-series. In 1979, Malcolm McDowell played Caligula in a full-length film. His story was also part of a TV series from 2015 called A.D. The Bible Continues, with Andrew Gower acting the role. The 2019 season of Roman Empire on Netflix focused on Caligula, with Ido Drent as the actor.

In literature and theatre

Caligula has been a character in books and plays too. A play by Polish writer Karol Hubert Rostworowski showed him as a sad and weak man. French author Albert Camus wrote a play where Caligula returns to the palace after three days away. In a famous novel by Robert Graves, Caligula’s early life and actions are described, and this novel was turned into a TV series in 1976. Polish poet Zbigniew Herbert wrote a poem about one of Caligula’s horses.

In opera

Caligula also appears in operas. He is a character in an old opera by Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber and is the main character in a modern opera by Detlev Glanert based on the play by Albert Camus. Many composers from long ago wrote operas about him, though most of these have been lost.