Celts

The Celts were a group of ancient peoples in Europe who shared similar languages and cultures. They lived in many parts of Europe, including areas that are now France, Spain, the United Kingdom, and even as far east as Turkey. The Celts included groups such as the Gauls in France, the Celtiberians in Spain, and the Britons and Gaels in Britain and Ireland.

We know about the Celts from old writings, especially from Greek and Roman writers, and from the words and stories that survived in Ireland and Wales. They had their own special ways of life, including a religion led by people known as druids. The Celts often clashed with the Romans, who eventually took over most of their lands.

Even though the Romans changed many Celtic areas, the people in places like Ireland, Wales, and Brittany kept their languages and traditions alive. Today, some people still speak Celtic languages, and there is a strong interest in learning more about Celtic history and culture.

Names and terminology

Main article: Names of the Celts

The name 'Celts' was first used by ancient Greek writers to describe people living near what is now Marseille in France around 517 BC. Later writers also used this name for groups in other parts of Europe. The meaning of the word 'Celts' is not fully known, but it might have come from an ancient word meaning 'hidden' or 'strong'.

In more recent times, the word 'Celtic' started being used around the year 1700 to talk about the languages and cultures of places like Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany, and the Isle of Man. These areas still speak languages that are related to each other, which is why they are called Celtic today. Some parts of Europe also claim Celtic heritage, even though their languages have changed over time.

Origins

Main articles: Pre-Celtic and Celticization

The Celtic languages are a group of Indo-European languages. By around 400 BC, when they first appear in written records, the Celts had already split into several language groups and spread across much of western Europe, the Iberian Peninsula, Ireland, and Britain. These languages developed into Celtiberian, Goidelic, and Brittonic branches, among others.

For much of the 20th century, many believed the Celts and their early language came from the Urnfield culture in central Europe around 1000 BC. This culture spread westward and southward over hundreds of years. The Urnfield culture was strong in central Europe during the late Bronze Age, around 1200 BC to 700 BC. The spread of iron-working led to the Hallstatt culture around 800 to 500 BC, which developed from the Urnfield culture in areas north of the Alps. The Hallstatt culture later evolved into the La Tène culture around 450 BC, which is linked to Celtic art.

In 1846, a scientist named Johann Georg Ramsauer found an old grave field at Hallstatt, Austria, with special items buried with the people. Because these graves dated to about the same time the Celts were mentioned near the Danube by Herodotus, Ramsauer thought they were Celtic. Similar sites and objects were found across a wide area, and these were called the 'Hallstatt culture'. In 1857, an archaeological site called La Tène was found in Switzerland. The many objects there had a unique style. Items of this 'La Tène style' were found in places where Celts lived, and early Celtic languages were spoken. So, by the 1870s, scholars began to see La Tène finds as linked to the Celts. This network was later taken over by the Roman Empire, but bits of La Tène style survived in Gallo-Roman artifacts. In Britain and Ireland, the La Tène style lasted longer and appeared again in Insular art.

The Urnfield-Hallstatt idea was questioned more in the late 20th century. This was because the oldest known Celtic language writings were from the 6th century BC in Lepontic and the 2nd century BC in Celtiberian. These were found in northern Italy and Iberia, places not part of the 'Hallstatt' or 'La Tène' cultures at the time. The theory also relied on old writings from Greco-Roman authors like Histories by Herodotus, who placed the Celts near the source of the Danube. However, Stephen Oppenheimer suggests Herodotus may have thought the Danube started near the Pyrenees, putting the ancient Celts closer to Gaul and Iberia. The theory also used many inscriptions with Celtic names from the later Roman times in Noricum, but these may show later Celtic-speaking leaders rather than early settlements.

Later in the 20th century, some scholars stopped supporting the Urnfield-Hallstatt theory. 'Celtic' started to mean mainly 'people who spoke Celtic languages' instead of one culture or group. A new idea suggested Celtic languages began earlier along the Atlantic coast, including Britain, Ireland, Armorica, and Iberia, long before we see 'Celtic' culture in archaeology. Myles Dillon and Nora Kershaw Chadwick thought "Celtic settlement of the British Isles" might go back to the Bell Beaker culture in the Copper and Bronze Age, around 2750 BC. Martín Almagro Gorbea in 2001 also suggested Celtic began in the 3rd millennium BC, proposing the Bell Beaker culture spread the Celts widely across western Europe.

John T. Koch and Barry Cunliffe developed this 'Celtic from the West' theory. It says the early Celtic language started along the Atlantic coast and was the common language of the Atlantic Bronze Age network, later spreading inland and east. Cunliffe recently suggests this language began even earlier, around 3000 BC, spreading east with the Bell Beaker culture over 1000 years. His idea is based on language studies, old place names that look Celtic, and the belief that the Tartessian language was Celtic. But many language experts disagree, thinking Tartessian is not clearly Celtic.

Celtic expert Patrick Sims-Williams (2020) says that today, 'Celt' is mainly a language label. In his 'Celtic from the Centre' theory, he thinks the early Celtic language did not start in central Europe or the Atlantic, but between them. He believes it "became a separate Indo-European language around the second millennium BC, probably somewhere in Gaul [centered in modern France] ... and then spread in different directions at different speeds in the first millennium BC". Sims-Williams says this avoids problems with the idea that Celtic was spoken over a huge area for a very long time without big changes, and it keeps Celtic closer to Italy, fitting the view that Italic and Celtic may be linked.

Main article: Proto-Celtic language

Further information: Celtic toponymy

The early Celtic language is usually placed in the Late Bronze Age. The oldest Celtic language writings are the Lepontic inscriptions from Cisalpine Gaul in Northern Italy, older than the La Tène period. Other early writings, from the early La Tène time in Massilia, are in Gaulish, written in the Greek alphabet until the Romans took over. Celtiberian writings, using their own Iberian letters, appear later, after about 200 BC. Evidence of Insular Celtic only shows up around 400 AD, in Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions.

Besides writings, place names are an important source for learning about early Celtic times.

See also: Corded Ware culture § Genetic studies

Studies by Arnaiz-Villena and others in 2017 showed that some Celtic-related groups along the European Atlantic coast (like the Orkney Islands, Scotland, Ireland, Britain, Brittany, Portugal, Basque Country, and Galicia) shared a common HLA system.

Other genetic studies do not find strong genetic links between these groups beyond them all being West Europeans. Early European Farmers settled Britain and Northern Europe in the Neolithic, but recent genetics show that between 2400 and 2000 BC, over 90% of British DNA changed due to people from the European Steppe arriving. This brought Steppe DNA, including the R1b haplogroup, to western Europe. Modern genetic studies of British and Irish people, along with Iron Age samples, show they are very similar to other North Europeans, and less so to people from Galicia, Basque Country, or southern France.

Further information: Iron Age Europe

By the late 1800s, some began to see the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures not just as time periods but as groups of people who shared the same race and language. In the early 1900s, Gordon Childe believed these cultures could be thought of in racial or ethnic terms, influenced by Gustaf Kossinna. As the 20th century went on, the idea that La Tène culture was linked to Celts and the Celtic language became stronger. Any La Tène finds and burial sites were tied to the Celts.

In many areas of study, the Celts were seen as a Central European Iron Age group, linked to Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. But finds from Hallstatt and La Tène were rare in Iberia, southwestern France, northern and western Britain, southern Ireland, and Galatia, and did not give enough proof for a culture like Central Europe’s. It is also hard to say the Iberian Celts came from the Urnfield culture. This led to a new idea of a 'proto-Celtic' base and a process called Celticisation, starting in the Bronze Age Bell Beaker culture.

The La Tène culture grew and thrived during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC) in eastern France, Switzerland, Austria, southwest Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. It developed from the Hallstatt culture without a clear break, influenced by the Mediterranean world, especially from the Greeks and later Etruscan civilisations. Settlements moved around the 4th century. The western La Tène culture matches historic Celtic Gaul. It is hard to say if all of La Tène culture was one Celtic people; archaeologists say language and objects do not always match. Frey notes that in the 5th century, "burial customs in the Celtic world were not the same; instead, local groups had their own beliefs, which also led to different art styles". So, while La Tène culture is linked to the Gauls, finding La Tène objects may be from cultural contact and does not mean Celtic speakers lived there permanently.

The Greek writer Ephorus of Cyme in Asia Minor, writing in the 4th century BC, thought the Celts came from islands near the Rhine and were "forced from their homes by frequent wars and rising sea levels". Polybius wrote a history of Rome around 150 BC, describing the Gauls of Italy and their fights with Rome. Pausanias in the 2nd century AD said the Gauls, "originally called Celts", "live in the farthest part of Europe on the coast of a huge ocean". Posidonius wrote about the southern Gauls around 100 BC. Though his original work is lost, later writers like Strabo used it. Strabo wrote in the early 1st century AD about Britain and Gaul, as well as Hispania, Italy, and Galatia. Caesar wrote a lot about his Gallic Wars from 58–51 BC. Diodorus Siculus wrote about the Celts of Gaul and Britain in his history from the 1st century.

Diodorus Siculus and Strabo both think the heartland of the people they call Celts was in southern Gaul. Diodorus says the Gauls were north of the Celts, but the Romans called both Gauls (linguistically, the Gauls were Celts). Before Hallstatt and La Tène discoveries, people often thought the Celtic heartland was southern Gaul, as shown in the Encyclopædia Britannica from 1813.

Distribution

Continental

Gaul

The Romans called the Celts living in what is now France "Gauls." Their lands also included areas of the Low Countries, the Alps, and northern Italy. Julius Caesar wrote about these Gauls in the 1st century BC.

Eastern Gaul became a center of a culture known as La Tène. Later, large towns developed there, and the Gauls started using coins. Texts written in Greek letters from southern Gaul date back to the 2nd century BC.

Greek traders founded the city of Massalia around 600 BC, trading items like drinking vessels up the Rhône River. Trade slowed after 500 BC but continued over the Alps to Italy. The Romans arrived in the Rhône valley in the 2nd century BC and gradually took control. By 58 BC, Julius Caesar began conquering Gaul, facing resistance until he defeated Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC.

After these wars, the area became part of the Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis. Gaulish was spoken across most of modern France.

Iberia

Traditional views suggested limited Celtic presence in Iberia, but modern studies show significant Celtic influence in Spain and Portugal, especially in central, western, and northern regions.

Groups included the Celtiberians in the Upper-Douro region, who lived in hill-forts and later developed urban life. The Vetton group produced sculptures called Verracos, and the Vaccean group showed Celtiberian influences. The Castro Culture in northwest Iberia had unique features like sauna baths and stone warrior sculptures. The Astures and Cantabri resisted Roman rule until the Cantabrian Wars ended in 19 BC. Celts also lived in southwest Iberia.

Germany, Alps and Italy

By the late Bronze Age, the Urnfield culture covered central Europe, replaced by the Hallstatt culture from the 12th to 8th centuries BC, and later the La Tène culture from the 5th to 1st centuries BC. These cultures are linked to the Celts.

In Italy, the Canegrate culture marked early Celtic presence, and La Tène culture spread widely. Lepontic, the oldest known Celtic language, was spoken in Switzerland and northern Italy.

In 391 BC, Celts crossed the Alps and settled between the Apennines and the Alps, founding cities like Milan. Rome was sacked by the Senones in 390 BC, and Celtic forces were defeated at the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC. Roman conquest ended Celtic dominance in Italy by 192 BC.

Expansion east and south

Celts traveled down the Danube River, with the Scordisci tribe establishing their capital at Singidunum (modern Belgrade) in the 3rd century BC. Dense populations lived in the Tisza valley of modern Serbia, Hungary, and Ukraine. Expansion into Romania was blocked by the Dacians.

The Serdi tribe lived around Serdika (modern Sofia) in Thrace, establishing themselves by the end of the 4th century BC. They ruled Thrace for over a century and settled in Anatolia as the Galatians, maintaining their Celtic language for about 700 years.

The Boii tribe’s name lives on in Bohemia, Bologna, and possibly Bavaria. Celtic artifacts have been found in Poland and Slovakia.

Insular

Today’s Celtic languages come from those spoken in Iron Age Britain and Ireland, splitting into Goidelic and Brittonic branches. By the 1st century AD, Insular Celts included the Celtic Britons, Gaels (or Scoti), and Picts (or Caledonians).

Scholars debate whether Celtic languages reached the British Isles through migrations or earlier contact. Some suggest Celtic arrived as early as 2500 BC with the Bell Beaker culture. Genetic studies show migration into southern Britain from 1300 to 800 BC, possibly spreading early Celtic languages.

Insular Celts practiced Ancient Celtic religion, led by druids. Some southern British tribes minted coins and had links with Gaul. After Roman rule ended in Britain around the 400s AD, Anglo-Saxon settlers arrived in the east and south, while Gaelic settlers came to the west. Brittonic speakers became Welsh, Cornish, Bretons, and Cumbrians, while Gaelic speakers became Irish, Scots, and Manx.

Romanisation

Main articles: Gallo-Roman culture and Romano-British culture

When Caesar led the Romans, they took over the Celtic lands known as Gaul. Later, starting with Claudius, parts of Britain also came under Roman control. The Romans set up local governments in these areas that followed the old Celtic tribal borders, and people from the local Celtic groups took part in running things.

The people living under Roman rule started to adopt many Roman customs. Celtic art already mixed in some Roman styles, and artworks from the time show both Roman ideas and old Celtic traditions.

The Roman control over Gaul and some of Britain created a mixing of Roman and Celtic cultures. For the Celts on the mainland, this led to speaking Vulgar Latin instead of their old languages, but the Celts on islands kept their languages.

Gaul also influenced Rome, especially in the military and with horses. The Romans used Celtic horsemen in their army and took up the Celtic sword called the spatha and honored Epona, the Celtic goddess of horses.

Society

The Celts were a group of people in Europe and Anatolia who shared similar languages and culture. They included groups like the Gauls, Celtiberians, Gallaeci, Britons, Picts, Gaels, Boii, and Galatians.

Celtic societies were often led by kings, but some had forms of government where leaders were chosen by groups of people. They were usually split into three main classes: warriors, a learned group including druids, poets, and lawyers, and everyone else. Family life and settlement patterns varied widely. Some lived in small, scattered groups, while others built towns. The Celts had practices like slavery, similar to those in ancient Greece and Rome. They also had a rich tradition of oral storytelling and beautiful metalwork. Their art included intricate designs and patterns. Some Celtic groups used chariots in battle long after other cultures stopped using them.

Warfare and weapons

Main articles: Celtic warfare and Celtic sword

Tribal warfare was common among the Celts. Stories often show it as more like sport, with groups raiding and hunting. But history tells us that tribes used warfare to control areas, bother their rivals, gain wealth, and sometimes take over land.

The Celts were known for their fighting style, which some writers compared to wild animals. They used long swords mainly for cutting, not stabbing. They also used spears and special throwing weapons called javelins. Some Celts even fought without wearing armor, which looked very scary to their enemies.

The Celts had a strong belief in the importance of heads. They thought the head held a person's spirit and power. After battles, some Celts would take the heads of their enemies, preserve them, and display them as a sign of respect or to show strength. This practice is shown in old stories and carvings found in places where the Celts lived.

Religion and mythology

Ancient Celtic religion

Main articles: Ancient Celtic religion, Celtic mythology, and Proto-Celtic religion

The Celts practiced a religion that believed in many gods and an afterlife. Their religion changed in different places and times but shared some basic ideas. Since the Celts did not write down their stories, we learn about their beliefs from old writings, stories from later times, and archaeological finds.

Many gods and goddesses were part of Celtic life. Some were known only in certain areas, while others were famous across many lands. The Celts believed that nature had spirits in everything around them. They had gods for the sky, the earth, war, skills, healing, and more. Priests called druids led religious ceremonies and also helped with judging and teaching.

The Celts held ceremonies in special natural places like groves of trees. They also built temples and made gifts to their gods, often putting valuable items in water or special places. Some stories from Roman writers mention that the Celts sometimes made very serious sacrifices, but these details are not suitable for younger readers.

Insular Celtic mythology

Most of the stories about Celtic gods and heroes come from Ireland and Wales. These stories were written down later by Christian writers. In Irish tales, the Tuatha Dé Danann are the main gods, and they fought against the Fomóire. The stories often show a balance between male and female powers, with gods and goddesses representing different parts of life and nature.

Heroes in these stories sometimes travel to a magical world called the Otherworld. The Celts celebrated special festivals during the year, marking the seasons.

Roman influence

Further information: Gallo-Roman culture

When the Romans came to live among the Celts, many things changed. The druids lost much of their power, and new gods appeared that mixed Roman and Celtic ideas. The Romans also introduced stone monuments to honor the gods, while the Celts had mostly used wooden ones before.

Celtic Christianity

Main article: Celtic Christianity

In areas not ruled by Rome, like Ireland and Scotland, people slowly moved from their old ways to Christianity. Ireland helped spread Christianity to other places. Celtic Christianity had some special ways of doing things that were different from other Christian groups, but these differences were mostly settled later on.

Genetics

See also: Bell Beaker culture § Genetics, Hallstatt culture § Genetics, La Tène culture § Genetics, Gauls § Genetics, Celtic Britons § Genetics, Celtiberians § Genetics, and Italic peoples § Genetics

Genetic studies suggest that the people from the Iron Age in Celtic areas were closely related to people from the earlier Bell Beaker culture in Western Europe. Both groups had a lot of ancestry from Western Steppe Herders, coming from people who moved west from the Pontic–Caspian steppe long ago. This ancestry is especially strong in Northwest Europe. Most of these ancient people had a certain type of paternal DNA called haplogroup R-M269, while their maternal DNA often showed types H and U. These DNA types are linked to the steppe ancestry. When the Celts moved into places like Iberia, the local people there started to show more ancestry from north-central European groups. There was also a lot of mixing among Celtic groups in Western Europe during the Iron Age. The Gauls in southern France were genetically similar to the Celtiberians, while the Gauls in northern France were more similar to people from Great Britain and Sweden. Today, people in Western Europe who still speak Celtic languages are genetically very similar to the people who lived there during the Iron Age.