History of Mongolia

Various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, Xianbei state, Rouran Khaganate, the First and Second Turkic Khaganates, ruled the area of present-day Mongolia. The Khitan people founded an empire known as the Liao dynasty, which ruled Mongolia and parts of North China, northern Korea, and the Russian Far East.

In 1206, Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes and created the largest contiguous empire in world history, the Mongol Empire (1206–1368). After the empire broke apart, Mongolia was ruled by the Yuan dynasty based in Khanbaliq, or modern Beijing.

After the Yuan dynasty ended in 1368, Mongolia experienced periods of internal conflict. In the late 17th century, Mongolia became part of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. Mongolia declared independence from Qing during the Xinhai Revolution and fully achieved independence in 1945.

In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was established and followed the patterns of Soviet politics. After the Revolutions of 1989, Mongolia transitioned to a multi-party system and a market economy in the early 1990s.

Prehistory

Main articles: Prehistoric Mongolia and Proto-Mongols

Long ago, the climate in Central Asia became very dry after big land movements pushed together the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate. This created tall mountain ranges like the Himalayas. These mountains, along with the Greater Khingan and Lesser Khingan, blocked warm, wet air from reaching Mongolia, making the land dry.

Mongolia has been a place of many important discoveries. The first dinosaur eggs ever found by scientists were discovered there in 1923. During a time called the middle to late Eocene, Mongolia was home to many interesting ancient mammals.

People lived in Mongolia as far back as 800,000 years ago, even though we have not found their fossils yet. We do have found stone tools from that time, especially in the Gobi Desert. There are also old cave drawings in places like the Khoid Tsenkheriin Agui in Khovd province and the Tsagaan Agui (White Cave) in Bayankhongor Province. Evidence shows that people were riding horses and moving from place to place during the Copper and Bronze Age.

Ancient period

The area of modern Mongolia has been home to nomadic groups since ancient times. These people lived by moving with their animals and hunting. Life was generally peaceful, but the landscape of mountains, deserts, and cold northern lands limited where they could travel.

Many different groups ruled this land over time. One of the earliest was the Xiongnu, who formed a large state in the 3rd century BC. They were strong leaders and controlled areas from north to south and east to west. Later groups included the Xianbei, Rouran, and many others who each built their own kingdoms and influenced the region.

The Khitan people later created the Liao dynasty, ruling parts of Mongolia, northern China, and even parts of Russia and Korea. They built cities and developed new writing systems, mixing their own traditions with those of the people they governed.

Medieval period

Confederations and khanates in the 12th century

The 12th century in Mongolia was a time of many tribes and groups competing for power. Some tribes called themselves Mongols as early as the 8th century. They lived in areas east of the Greater Khingan Range, moving between lowlands in winter and mountains in summer. These people were nomadic, and their language was similar to modern Manchu-Tungusic and Khitan languages.

By the early 12th century, groups of Mongol tribes began forming larger groups called the Khamag Mongol confederacy. They lived in fertile areas around rivers like Onon, Kherlen, and Tuul in the Khentii mountains. The first known leader of this group was Khabul Khan. Later leaders included Ambaghai Khan and Hotula Khan. However, after Hotula Khan died, there was a leadership crisis until 1189.

Consolidation of the Mongol state

Temujin, later known as Genghis Khan, began uniting the Mongol tribes with help from allies. He defeated many tribes, including the Mergids who had captured his wife. By 1206, Temujin had united all the Mongol tribes and was named Genghis Khan, Emperor of all Mongols, at a meeting on the Onon River.

Formation of the Mongol Empire

Genghis Khan and his successors built a huge empire that included parts of Asia and eastern Europe. They organized their army in groups of thousands called tumens. Genghis Khan’s empire grew through many battles against neighbors like the Jin dynasty in China and the Khwarezm Empire in Central Asia.

Mongol Empire and Pax Mongolica

After Genghis Khan’s death, his son Ogedei Khan became ruler. He made Karakorum the capital and created a postal system to connect distant parts of the empire. The empire brought many cultures together, sharing ideas and goods across Eurasia. This time of peace and connection is called the Pax Mongolica.

Fragmentation of the Mongol Empire and Yuan dynasty

Genghis Khan’s grandson Kublai Khan started the Yuan dynasty in China in 1271. This led to the empire splitting into four parts. Kublai moved the capital to Beijing and changed how the government worked. After the Yuan dynasty fell in 1368, the Mongols returned to their homeland and formed the Northern Yuan dynasty.

Northern Yuan and Four Oirat

After leaving China, the Mongols faced attacks from the Ming dynasty but kept their strength. Leaders like Biligtü Khan and Köke Temür defended their land. Over time, the Mongols split into Eastern and Western groups, with the Oirats becoming powerful in the west. Leaders such as Esen Taishi tried to unite the Mongols but faced rebellion.

The third introduction of Buddhism

In the late 1500s and early 1600s, Buddhism became important in Mongolia. Leaders like Altan Khan and Abtai Khan met with Buddhist leaders, helping spread the religion. Monasteries were built, and Buddhist art flourished. This period also saw advances in writing, with new scripts developed for Mongolian languages.

Cultural renaissance

The late 15th and 16th centuries were a time of cultural growth in Mongolia. Artists created beautiful paintings and sculptures, and writers produced important books. Scientists made discoveries in math and astronomy. This time marked a revival of Mongolian culture after earlier challenges.

Qing dynasty

Qing conquests of Mongolia

See also: Qing dynasty in Inner Asia and Dzungar–Qing War

In the early 1600s, the Mongols were split into three groups: the Khalkha, Inner Mongols, and Buryats. The Mongol leaders had become weaker, and they faced the growing power of the Manchus from the east. The last Mongol leader, Ligdan Khan, had conflicts with the Manchus and tried to get help from the Ming dynasty. But many Mongol tribes turned against him. In 1618, Ligdan made an agreement with the Ming to protect their border in exchange for silver.

A leader named Nurhaci united the Manchu tribes and wanted to work with Ligdan Khan against the Ming. Ligdan Khan refused, saying Nurhaci was not powerful enough. Nurhaci then made alliances with some Mongol tribes who turned against Ligdan Khan and defeated him in 1622.

By the 1620s, only the Chahars still followed Ligdan Khan. His army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by Inner Mongol and Manchu forces. Ligdan Khan tried to take land from the Manchus in 1623 and moved into Manchurian areas in 1631. But the Manchu leader Hong Taiji defeated him again in 1634. Ligdan Khan died in 1634 while traveling to Tibet.

Hong Taiji took control of Inner Mongolia in 1636 and the Qing dynasty conquered the Ming dynasty in 1644.

A leader named Erdeni Batur Hongtaiji of the Dzungar Khanate tried to unite Western Mongolian Dzungars and Khalkas in 1640 to fight against outside threats. They made a set of laws called the “Mongol-Oirat Code.”

In 1688, a conflict began between the Khalkha and Dzungar leaders. The Khalkha leaders asked the Qing for help, but the Qing emperor said they must agree to be his allies first. The Dzungar leader Galdan Boshugtu Khan fought the Khalkha and moved into their lands. The Qing emperor refused Galdan's demands and a big battle happened near UlaanBudan where Galdan was defeated and had to run away.

The Dzungar leader then changed to Tsewang Rabtan. He fought against the Qing and also against Russia. The Qing and Russia made agreements in 1689 and 1727 to set the borders of Mongolia.

Mongolia also faced Russian expansion in the 1600s. The Buryats fought against Russian attacks, but the Russians took control of the area around Lake Baikal. Battles continued, and the Buryat region was finally taken by Russia in treaties from 1689 to 1727.

Tsewang Rabtan sent a general to try to take Tibet in 1716, but Qing forces stopped them in 1720. The Dzungar leader Galdan Tseren took over in 1727 and tried to build up his land. But after he died in 1745, fights among his family led to weakness. In 1755, the Qing army invaded and took over the Dzungar lands.

Mongolia under Qing rule

Main article: Mongolia under Qing rule

After taking control of Outer Mongolia, the Qing government organized the Khalkha people into four groups called aimags. These aimags were led by local rulers who had to follow the orders of the Qing emperors. They had to provide soldiers, help in hunts, and manage their people. If they did well, they could be rewarded, but if they did not follow the rules, they were punished.

The ordinary Mongol people had a hard life. They had to give horses and animals for the army and sometimes had to fight themselves. The Qing government also made rules to keep Mongols separate from other groups, but later allowed more people to move into Mongolia.

Modern period

Bogd Khanate (1911–1919)

Main article: Bogd Khanate of Mongolia

See also: Occupation of Mongolia

The name of the state was "Ikh Mongol Uls", meaning the "Great Mongolian State". Yuan Shikai, the leader of the new Republic of China, wanted to include Mongolia as part of China. The Mongols believed they were loyal to the old leaders, not to China itself. In 1911, Mongolia declared independence under the leadership of the Bogd Khan.

The Bogd Khan was crowned as the ruler of Mongolia in December 1911. Mongolian forces took control of several areas. They formed a parliament and created laws for the new country.

Chinese territory (1919–1921)

After the Russian Revolution in 1917, China tried to take control of Mongolia again. In 1919, Chinese forces occupied Mongolia's capital and forced the Bogd Khan to accept Chinese rule. Mongolian leaders who opposed this were arrested.

Mongolian People's Republic (1921–1992)

Main article: Mongolian People's Republic

In 1921, Mongolian revolutionaries, with help from the Soviet Union, drove out the Chinese forces. They formed a new government. The Bogd Khan remained the symbolic leader, but real power lay with the new revolutionary party and their advisors from the Soviet Union.

In 1924, after the Bogd Khan died, Mongolia became a republic and followed the Soviet Union's way of governing. The government focused on building a modern economy and society, though it faced many challenges.

Democracy

Main articles: Mongolia, Mongolian Revolution of 1990, and History of modern Mongolia

In 1989, people in Mongolia began calling for democratic changes. Large protests led to negotiations and reforms. The first democratic elections were held in 1990, and Mongolia became a fully democratic country in 1992.

In 2021, Ukhnaa Khurelsukh became the country's president after winning democratic elections.