History of the Catholic Church in Mexico

The history of the Catholic Church in Mexico began during the Spanish conquest from 1519 to 1521 and has continued as an important part of Mexico into the present day. Catholicism is one of the many lasting influences from the Spanish colonial period, along with the Spanish language, civil laws, and colonial architecture. For a long time, the Catholic Church held a special place in Mexico, being the only allowed church during the colonial era and early years of the Mexican Republic after independence in 1821.

In the mid-nineteenth century, changes happened in how the government and the Church worked together. Mexican leaders who supported liberal reforms challenged the Church's role, especially because of its involvement in politics. New laws limited the Church's influence in education, property ownership, and keeping records of births, marriages, and deaths. These changes were part of the Constitution of 1857. During the War of the Reform and the French Intervention, the Church was linked with groups trying to oppose the new government and keep old traditions.

Later, during the presidency of Plutarco Elías Calles from 1924 to 1928, there was a serious conflict over these laws, leading to violence in some areas. This was known as the Cristero Rebellion. Eventually, the government and Church reached an agreement, though the laws remained.

In 1992, under President Carlos Salinas de Gortari, big changes were made to the Constitution, allowing the Catholic Church more legal rights again. Today, most Mexicans still identify as Catholic, but other religious groups such as evangelicals and Mormons, as well as secular ideas, are also growing across the country.

Colonial era (1521–1821)

See also: Franciscan missions to the Maya, Franciscan Missions in the Sierra Gorda, Yaqui people § Conquistadors and Missionaries, and Spanish missions in Mexico

During the time when Spain ruled Mexico, from 1521 to 1821, the Catholic Church played an important role. Many missionaries traveled to Mexico to share their beliefs with the local people. This period helped shape Mexico's culture, language, and architecture, leaving a lasting influence that can still be seen today.

Early period: The Spiritual Conquest 1519–1572

During the time when Spain conquered Mexico, they had two big goals: to take control of the land and people, and to teach the local people about Christianity. When the Spanish explorers came to Mexico, a priest named Gerónimo de Aguilar went with them. The Spanish were upset to see some local traditions that hurt people, and they tried to stop these traditions right away.

After the Spanish took over the big city of Tenochtitlan in 1521, they began teaching Christianity to the local people more widely. The Spanish king was given special powers by the pope to help lead the church in new lands. This meant the king could choose important church leaders.

To help teach the local people, groups of religious men called Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians came to Mexico starting in 1524. These men set up places to live and built churches, often using the same spots where old temples once stood. They traveled to smaller villages to teach and perform important church ceremonies.

The Spanish hoped to train local men to become priests, and they started a school for this purpose. However, they decided that local men could not become priests, so only Spanish men served in this role. The religious men built hospitals to care for the sick, especially after many local people got very sick from new diseases. They also started groups called confraternities where local people could come together for religious activities and support one another.

Spanish Habsburg Era (1550–1700)

Establishment of the episcopal hierarchy and the assertion of crown control

The Catholic Church is organized into areas called dioceses, each led by a bishop. The main church in a diocese is called a cathedral. The diocese of Mexico was set up in Mexico City in 1530. At first, Mexico was not its own church area; until 1547, it was under the authority of the Archbishop of Seville in Spain.

The first bishop of Mexico was a Franciscan friar named Juan de Zumárraga. The church that became the first cathedral began construction in 1524 on the main square and was finished in 1532. Usually, members of mendicant orders were not given high positions in the church hierarchy, so Zumárraga and his successor, Alonso de Montúfar, were unusual choices as bishops of Mexico. In 1572, Pedro Moya de Contreras became the first bishop of Mexico who was a regular priest.

Bishops as interim viceroys

The Spanish crown set up the viceroyalty of New Spain, appointing high-born Spaniards loyal to the crown as the top civil official. Sometimes, the crown chose archbishops or bishops to serve as viceroy temporarily until a new viceroy arrived from Spain. Pedro Moya de Contreras was the first cleric to serve as viceroy from September 25, 1584, to October 17, 1585.

The seventeenth century had the most clerics serving as viceroys. García Guerra served from June 19, 1611, to February 22, 1612. Juan de Palafox y Mendoza served briefly from June 10, 1642, to November 23, 1642. Marcos de Torres y Rueda served from May 15, 1648, to April 22, 1649. Diego Osorio de Escobar y Llamas served from June 29, 1664, to October 15, 1664. Payo Enríquez de Rivera Manrique served a long term from December 13, 1673, to November 7, 1680. Juan Ortega y Montañés served twice as interim viceroy, first from February 27, 1696, to December 18, 1696, and again from November 4, 1701, to November 27, 1702.

After the Spanish Bourbon monarchy began, only three clerics served as viceroy. Juan Antonio de Vizarrón y Eguiarreta served six years from March 17, 1734, to August 17, 1740. Alonso Núñez de Haro y Peralta served from May 8, 1787, to August 16, 1787. Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont served from July 19, 1809, to May 8, 1810.

Structure of the episcopal hierarchy

The church was led by a bishop, who had significant power over legislative, executive, and judicial matters. A bishop oversaw a geographical area called a diocese, which was divided into parishes, each with a parish priest. The main church of a diocese was its cathedral, which had its own administration.

New Spain became the center of an archbishopric in 1530, with the archbishop overseeing multiple dioceses. The diocese of Michoacan became an archdiocese in the sixteenth century. New dioceses were created in main cities, with cathedrals built in Antequera (now Oaxaca City) in 1535, Guadalajara in 1541, Puebla in 1557, Zacatecas in 1568, Mérida in 1598, and Saltillo in 1762.

Ecclesiastical privileges

Priests had special rights called fueros, meaning they were tried in church courts instead of civil courts, no matter the offense. This gave the Church a lot of independent power. In the late eighteenth century, the Bourbon Reforms removed this privilege, making clergy subject to civil courts.

Secular or diocesan clergy's income

High-ranking priests, parish priests, and priests working in hospitals received a regular salary called a benefice. However, not all priests had a secure income and had to find other ways to make a living. Since secular priests did not promise poverty, they often took on economic roles like other members of society. An example is Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, a distinguished intellectual from New Spain who had no benefice.

Reduction of mendicants' role

In the sixteenth century, the establishment of the episcopal hierarchy was part of a larger plan by the Spanish crown to reduce the role of mendicant orders as parish priests in central areas of the colony and strengthen the role of diocesan clergy. The Ordenanza del Patronazgo was a key law passed by the crown in 1574, which gave the crown control over the clergy and strengthened the crown's role.

The Ordenanza guaranteed parish priests an income and a permanent position. Priests competed for desirable parishes through exams called oposiones. Winners became beneficiados, while others served temporarily as curates. This law marked the rise of diocesan clergy over mendicants and showed the growth of the Spanish population in New Spain.

Pious endowments

Wealthy people sometimes set aside funds to ensure Masses would be said for their souls forever. Families with a priest often designated him as the capellán to manage these funds, ensuring his financial stability. Although the endowment was for religious purposes, the Church did not control the funds.

Tithes

The crown had the power to collect tithes, a ten percent tax on agriculture, and used these revenues to support the Church. When revenues were low, the crown used money from the royal treasury to make up the difference.

Society of Jesus in Mexico, 1572–1767

At the same time the church hierarchy was being set up, the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, a new religious order, came to Mexico in 1572. The Jesuits had high standards for joining and many years of training. They attracted support from elite families, whose sons they educated in colleges like Colegio de San Pedro y San Pablo, Colegio de San Ildefonso, and Colegio de San Francisco Javier in Tepozotlan. Jesuits were also active in teaching the indigenous people, especially in northern areas.

Jesuit haciendas

To support their colleges and members, the Jesuits acquired large estates called haciendas. These estates were run using the best practices of the time and often donated by wealthy people. This led to conflicts, especially when Jesuits refused to pay tithes on their estates, taking money away from the church hierarchy.

Many Jesuit haciendas were very large. For example, two colleges owned 300,000 sheep, and six sugar plantations generated significant income. The hacienda of Santa Lucía produced pulque, a drink made from the agave cactus. Although most haciendas had workers, some Jesuit haciendas used black slaves.

The Jesuits managed their properties as part of the larger Jesuit order, using the income to fund their colleges. They expanded missions to indigenous people in frontier areas, though some were martyred. The crown supported these missions. Mendicant orders, which also owned property, were less economically integrated, so some were wealthy while others struggled.

Jesuit resistance to the tithe

The Jesuits conflicted with the church hierarchy over paying tithes, a ten percent tax on agriculture. As the largest religious order with property, this was significant. They claimed exemption due to special privileges from the Pope. In the mid-seventeenth century, bishop Juan de Palafox of Puebla challenged the Jesuits and was recalled to Spain.

Mendicant orders were jealous of the Jesuits' wealth and influence, and fewer good candidates chose them over the Jesuits.

Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767

In 1767, the Spanish crown ordered the Jesuits to leave Spain and its territories. Their properties were sold to elites who could afford to buy them. The mendicant orders did not protest their expulsion. The Jesuits had established missions in Baja California before being expelled, which were then taken over by Franciscans, who later established 21 missions in Alta California.

Convents

Establishments for elite creole women

In the early years of Spanish settlement in New Spain, few Spanish women came to join family, so there was pressure for them to marry rather than become nuns. However, as more Spanish families settled, nunneries for elite women were created. The first convent in New Spain was founded in 1540 in Mexico City by the Conceptionist Order. Mexico City had the most nunneries with 22. Puebla had 11, Guadalajara had 6, and Antequera (Oaxaca) had 5. In total, there were 56 convents for elite women in New Spain, with the largest number in major cities. Even smaller cities had convents.

These convents were for the daughters of elites, with private living spaces for nuns and their servants. Discipline varied by order. Nuns entered with a significant dowry and often had elaborate ceremonies. Nunneries grew wealthy from these dowries and from renting urban property.

Establishments for Indian noblewomen

In the eighteenth century, the Poor Clares established a convent for noble Indigenous women. The debate over creating the convent of Corpus Christi in 1724 questioned whether Indigenous people could live a religious life. Earlier, the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, founded to train Indigenous men for the priesthood, had closed.

Holy Office of the Inquisition

At the same time the church hierarchy was being set up, the Holy Office of the Inquisition was established in 1569 to maintain Catholic orthodoxy and morality. In 1570, Indigenous people were removed from the Inquisition's authority.

Crypto-Jews

Non-Catholics were not allowed to move to Spain's territories without proof of Catholic heritage. However, some crypto-Jews, who were Jews who converted to Christianity but still practiced Judaism, did settle. Many were Portuguese merchants involved in the slave trade. After Portugal rebelled against Spain in 1640, the Inquisition closely watched the merchant community, where many crypto-Jews were active. In 1649, crypto-Jews were punished by civil authorities.

The Gran Auto de Fe of 1649 saw crypto-Jews burned, and the remains of others were also burned. Although this might seem strange today, burning the remains protected living and dead Christians from those who rejected Christianity.

Other jurisdictional transgressions

The Inquisition usually imposed lighter penalties than death. They dealt with cases of bigamy, blasphemy, Lutheranism (Protestantism), witchcraft, and later, sedition against the crown. Inquisition records have helped historians understand social and cultural patterns in colonial times.

Indigenous beliefs

Indigenous people were not under the Inquisition's authority when it was set up, but there were concerns about their beliefs and practices. In 1629, Hernando Riz de Alarcón wrote about Indigenous superstitions. He came to the Inquisition's attention for punishing Indigenous people without authority, but was forgiven and appointed to inform the Inquisition about pagan practices.

Devotions to holy men and women

Virgin of Guadalupe and other devotions to Mary

In 1531, a Nahua named Juan Diego reported seeing a vision of a young girl on the site of a destroyed temple. This became the cult of the Virgin of Guadalupe, promoted by Dominican archbishop Alonso de Montúfar. The vision became linked to an image on a cloak, known as Our Lady of Guadalupe.

The Virgin of Guadalupe became very important, especially for American-born Spaniards. During independence, she became a symbol of liberation. Other important devotions to Mary included the Virgin of Ocotlan in Tlaxcala, Our Lady of San Juan de los Lagos in Jalisco, the Basilica of Our Lady of Solitude in Oaxaca, and the Virgin of Los Remedios, which symbolized Spanish rule.

Devotions to Christ and pilgrimage sites

In colonial New Spain, there were several devotions to images of Christ. Some focused worship on images of a Black Christ, such as the Cristo Negro de Esquipulas, the Cristo Negro of Otatitlan, and others. In Totolapan, an image of Christ crucified appeared in 1543 and became a subject of scholarly study.

Mexican saints

New Spain had residents recognized as saints in their communities. Felipe de Jesús, a Franciscan from Mexico, was the first saint from Mexico, canonized in 1862. Sebastian de Aparicio, a lay Franciscan from Spain, was beatified in 1789. Catarina de San Juan, known as the China Poblana, was regarded as holy but not officially recognized. María de Ágreda, a Spanish nun, was believed to have helped evangelize the Jumano Indians. Junípero Serra, who founded missions in California, was beatified in 1988 and canonized in 2015. Juan Diego, linked to the Virgin of Guadalupe, was beatified in 1990 and canonized in 2002.

Spanish Bourbon Era 1700–1821

When King Charles II of Spain died in 1700 without children, several European powers fought over who should be the next king in the War of the Spanish Succession. The French House of Bourbon won, and Philip V became king of Spain in 1714. The new Bourbon kings made big changes in how Spain and its churches worked together.

These changes gave more power to the king and less to church leaders. Church leaders lost some special rights they used to have. The king also brought in new rules that affected church leaders and priests. He made it harder for people born in places like Mexico to become important church leaders, favoring people from Spain instead.

The king also took away a group of priests called the Jesuits in 1767. They were known for their schools and missions. Their removal upset many families in Mexico who had sent their sons to become Jesuits.

The king also tried to control church money more closely. He made new laws about marriages and took away some of the church’s powers to decide family matters. These changes upset many wealthy families and church leaders.

Changes in the Church as an economic institution

The Church owned a lot of land and buildings in Mexico. They also lent money to people who needed it, since there were no banks at the time. Wealthy families borrowed money from the Church to buy more land or improve what they already had.

The king tried to take control of this church money. He made new laws that forced families to pay back loans very quickly, which caused big financial problems for many wealthy families.

Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767

The Jesuits were a group of priests known for their schools and missions. They were expelled from Spain and its territories in 1767. Many Jesuits were sent to other countries, and families in Mexico who had supported them were upset.

Charitable Institutions

Wealthy people in Mexico often set up charities to help the poor. One example is the Nacional Monte de Piedad, started in 1777. It let people borrow small amounts of money without interest by giving their belongings as security. This charity still exists today.

Another example is the Hospital de Jesús, set up by the explorer Hernán Cortés. It was one of the first hospitals in Mexico City.

The clergy and Mexican independence 1810–1821

The changes made by the Bourbon kings made many priests unhappy with the Spanish government. When Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, this created confusion about who was really in charge.

Two priests, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and José María Morelos, became leaders in the fight for Mexico’s independence. Many priests supported the independence movement, hoping for a better situation for the Church in an independent Mexico.

When Mexico became independent in 1821, the Church supported this change, hoping to keep its power and influence in the new country.

Post-Independence Mexico, 1821-present

After Mexico gained independence, the role of the Catholic Church did not change much at first. But in the mid-1800s, Mexican leaders wanted to limit the Church's influence on the government and economy. This led to conflicts, and new laws were made to reduce the Church's power.

Later, during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz and after the Mexican Revolution, agreements were reached between the Church and the government. By 1992, the rules about the Church changed again. The Catholic Church has stayed an important part of Mexico since the time of the Spanish rulers.

Main article: Constitution of 1857
Main article: Porfirio Díaz
Main article: Mexican Revolution
Main article: Constitution of 1917

Independent Mexico in the nineteenth century

During the 1800s, the relationship between the government and the Catholic Church in Mexico changed a lot. At first, the church had a lot of power and influence. But Mexican leaders who supported liberal ideas wanted to limit the church's power.

There were times when these disagreements led to conflicts. But later, under the leadership of Porfirio Díaz, a new peaceful way of dealing with each other was created. Even though some laws that limited the church's power were still on the books, they were not enforced during this time. This helped the church regain some of its influence in Mexico.

The Mexican Revolution

Main article: Mexican Revolution

The Mexican Revolution began when President Porfirio Díaz decided to run for another term in 1910, breaking his earlier promises. This led to political unrest and the rise of Francisco Madero, who opposed Díaz. Madero called for Díaz to step down through the Plan of San Luis Potosí, and after a series of revolts, Díaz left Mexico in 1911. Madero became president, but he faced many challenges, including land reform and education changes, which worried the Catholic Church.

During Madero's time in office, the Catholic Church organized a party to protect its interests. However, Madero's government was unstable. When General Victoriano Huerta took power in a coup in 1913, some parts of the Catholic Church supported him. After Huerta was removed in 1914, the Church faced backlash. In the north, leader Venustiano Carranza and his followers, called Constitutionalists, opposed Huerta and took strong actions against church property. Meanwhile, in the south, Emiliano Zapata and local fighters, known as Zapatistas, continued to fight for their land rights and often supported local priests. The revolution brought many changes and conflicts for the Catholic Church in Mexico.

Church-State relations, 1917–1940

After the Mexican Revolution, the government grew stronger and wanted more control over the Catholic Church. The 1917 Constitution included rules that limited the Church's influence, such as requiring schools to be secular and taking away the Church's ability to own property. This caused tension between the Church and the government.

President Plutarco Elías Calles strongly enforced these rules, leading to conflicts. The Church stopped holding services, and many priests faced difficulties. This period ended with an agreement in 1929 that reduced the conflict but kept many of the Constitution's rules in place. Later presidents, like Lázaro Cárdenas and Manuel Ávila Camacho, worked to improve relations between the Church and the government.

Changing church-state relations, 1980–2000

Clampdown on liberation theology

In 1979, Pope John Paul II began to change how the Church operated, especially regarding certain activist bishops. One key figure was Girolamo Prigione, who helped choose new bishops who agreed with the Vatican’s views.

Church push for civic culture in Chihuahua

In the 1980s, the Church in Chihuahua spoke out about fair elections and good government. Archbishop Adalberto Almeida y Merino encouraged people to vote and stay involved, which led to more people participating in elections.

Salinas, the Vatican, and reform of the constitution

During the 1988 election, there were concerns about fairness. President Carlos Salinas de Gortari worked to improve relations between the Church and the government. Changes were made to Mexico’s constitution to allow greater freedom for religious groups while keeping the government separate from religious affairs.

Protestant groups and constitutional reform

When the rules changed, Protestant groups were also affected. They needed to meet certain requirements to register with the government.

Cardinal Posadas Ocampo's murder

In 1993, Cardinal Juan Jesús Posadas Ocampo of Guadalajara was tragically killed. The government said it was a case of mistaken identity, but many questions remain about what happened.

Issues in the 21st century

Keeping children safe

Further information: Catholic sexual abuse cases in Latin America § Mexico

Some sad events have happened where people in positions of trust hurt children. These events have caused many to feel upset and disappointed. It's important to remember that adults who want to hurt children are wrong, and steps have been taken to address these issues and make sure children are safer.

Priests targeted by dangerous groups

Since 2012, some priests have faced danger from groups involved in illegal activities. This has been especially hard in places like Guerrero. Leaders in the church have asked the government to help stop this violence.

Pope Francis visit

When Pope Francis visited Mexico, he talked about important issues like fairness and helping people in need. He also spoke out about problems at the border and encouraged young people to make good choices. He showed special care for indigenous communities and asked for forgiveness for past mistakes.

Falling membership

In recent years, the number of people who call themselves Catholic in Mexico has grown, but not as quickly as the overall population. More people are choosing other religions or no religion at all. Church leaders have reflected on these changes and emphasized the need for improvement and focus on core values.