History of the Jews in Hungary

The history of the Jews in Hungary goes back many centuries, even before the Hungarian people settled in their homeland around 895 CE. Jewish communities were part of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary, and some Jewish people even served as important officials for the king in the 1200s. Over time, their situation changed as Hungary’s policies became stricter, similar to other parts of Europe.

By the early 1900s, Jews made up about 5% of Hungary’s total population and almost a quarter of the people living in Budapest. Many became leaders in science, art, and business, making big contributions to the country’s culture and economy.

During World War II, Hungary passed unfair laws against Jews and later allowed Nazi Germany to occupy the country. Many Jewish people were taken from Hungary to camps, where they faced terrible conditions. After the war, the Jewish community in Hungary continued to grow and stay active. Today, Budapest still has many important Jewish places, including the largest synagogue in Europe.

Early history

The history of Jewish people in Hungary goes back a very long time. Some believe Jewish people lived there even before the Hungarian tribes arrived in the area around 895 CE. Records show Jewish people were part of Hungary during the medieval times.

In the early 1200s, Jewish people held important jobs, such as serving as officials for the king. However, over time, rules became stricter. By the late 1200s, Jewish people were required to wear special marks on their clothes to be recognized in public. Despite these challenges, Jewish communities continued to live and work in Hungary.

Expulsion, readmission and persecution (1349–1526)

During the time when foreign kings ruled Hungary after the Arpad family ended, Jewish people in Hungary faced many hard times. In 1349, during a sickness known as the Black Death, they were forced to leave the country. Though they were allowed back soon after, they were expelled again in 1360 by King Louis the Great of Anjou. At first, King Louis was kind to Jewish people, but later he tried to make them change their religion, which they did not do, leading to their expulsion. They found safety in nearby lands.

Later, when Hungary needed money, Jewish people were allowed to return. They found that the king had a habit of cancelling their important papers and agreements with just a signature. A special job was created for a "judge of all the Jews living in Hungary" to collect taxes from them, protect their rights, and listen to their problems.

After a while, things got worse for Jewish people in Hungary. They had their belongings taken away, people refused to pay them back money they owed, and they were treated badly. Some were even hurt and killed, including many in Nagyszombat (Trnava) in 1494. To stay safe, they asked for help from a powerful leader, who agreed to protect them and give them the same rights as others. But even after this, Jewish people still faced many difficulties during this time.

War against the Ottomans (1526–1686)

See also: History of the Jews in Turkey

The Ottomans defeated the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohács on August 29, 1526, and their king, Louis II, died in the battle. When news reached the capital, Buda, some wealthy Jews left with others who fled. When the Ottoman leader Ibrahim Pasha arrived, the remaining Jews gave him the keys to the empty castle as a sign of peace. The Ottoman ruler, Suleiman I, ordered that over 2,000 Jews from Buda and Esztergom be sent to cities across the Ottoman Empire, such as Constantinople, Pleven, and Sofia. In Sofia, Hungarian Jews formed their own community for many years.

Though the Ottoman Army left after the battle, they returned in 1541 to help stop an Austrian attack. They took control of Buda by trickery. Some Jews fled to areas beyond the border or to safe cities in western Hungary. In some places, leaders began to treat Jews badly. For example, the city of Sopron forced Jews to leave and took their property. The city of Bratislava also allowed its people to push Jews out.

Jews living in areas controlled by the Ottomans were treated better than those under the rule of the Habsburgs. During certain years, the Jewish community in Buda grew and thrived. At the end of Ottoman rule, about one thousand Jews in Buda worshiped in three different synagogues.

The following table shows the number of Jewish families paying a special tax in Buda during Ottoman rule:

Habsburg rule

Further persecution and expulsions (1686–1740)

When soldiers took over a city in 1686, many Jewish people living there were hurt or captured. Hungary then came under new rulers who wanted the country to become more like their own. Leaders advised the king to favor certain groups, making life harder for Jewish communities. Laws were passed that limited what Jewish people could do, like owning land or having Christian servants.

Over time, more rules were made against Jewish people. In some places, they were forced to leave. During a big uprising, Jewish communities faced danger and loss, though not many lost their lives. After peace returned, Jewish people were again told to leave many cities, though those living on farms were often left alone.

Maria Theresa (1740–1780)

Under a new ruler, Jewish communities faced more restrictions. They were forced out of some cities and had to pay special taxes. Jewish people were not allowed to live in certain areas or visit markets. They faced many unfair rules, like paying more for travel or needing to give their children as security for unpaid taxes.

Leaders tried to control the number of Jewish families by limiting how many could marry. Many Jewish people moved to Hungary from nearby places, where rules were stricter. Despite efforts to enforce laws, many powerful people helped Jewish communities, making it hard to carry out these rules.

Joseph II (1780–1790)

A new ruler, Joseph II, wanted to make life better for Jewish people. He made laws that opened many places to them and allowed them to settle freely. Jewish people were required to learn new languages and change some of their traditions. They were allowed to open schools and work in many jobs, though some rules, like not living in mining towns, stayed in place.

Jewish people thanked the ruler for these changes but asked to keep some of their traditions. They set up schools in several cities. Later, some cities tried to force Jewish people to leave, but the government stepped in to protect their rights.

Toleration and oppression (1790–1847)

In 1790, Jewish communities in Hungary asked for equal rights. A law was passed that protected their rights, though full equality would take many more years. Jewish people began adopting the local language and customs, hoping it would help their cause.

Even with progress, some people still showed dislike toward Jewish communities. During a big uprising in 1848, Jewish people showed their support for the country, even when faced with attacks. Some leaders spoke out in support of Jewish rights, but changes would come slowly.

Revolution and emancipation (1848–1849)

Jews and the Hungarian Revolution

In March 1848, Jews joined the national guard to protect their country, even though some cities did not allow them at first. At Pest, Jewish people formed their own group within the guard. Rabbi Leopold Löw from Pápa fought alongside Hungarian soldiers against the Croatians, inspiring others with his words. Many Jewish people served in different parts of the army, including the volunteer groups. They were praised for their bravery by important leaders.

Jewish communities also helped by giving money, supplies, and support to the soldiers. They hoped this would help them gain equal rights as citizens.

Brief emancipation and aftermath, 1849

Some Jewish leaders believed that changing certain religious practices might help them gain equal rights. In July 1848, Jewish leaders from all over Hungary met in Pest to ask the government for equal rights, but they refused to change their religious practices to do so.

In July 1849, the government granted Jewish people full citizenship. However, this only lasted two weeks. After the Hungarian army surrendered, new leaders punished Jewish communities with heavy taxes and other hardships. Many Jewish people were imprisoned, and some had to leave Hungary. Later, the government asked Jewish communities to pay a large amount of money, but they managed to negotiate a different way to help instead.

Struggles for a second emancipation (1859–1867)

During the time when Hungary was ruled by the Habsburg family, the freedom of Jewish people was delayed. In 1859, after Austrian troops lost a battle in Italy, Jewish leaders asked for more rights. That same year, Emperor Franz Joseph said that Jewish rights should be updated to fit the times, but carefully, depending on local conditions.

Jews used this time to build schools, many led by trained teachers. The government helped start special schools in places like Sátoraljaújhely, Temesvár (Timișoara), Pécs, and Pest. In Pest, they opened a teachers' school in 1859.

Later, when the Parliament met again in 1867, Jewish leaders pushed for freedom. On December 22, 1867, a law supporting Jewish freedom was passed in the lower house and then the upper house the next day. Even though some groups did not agree, most leaders did not worry about them.

In 1877, a special Jewish university opened in Budapest called the Budapest University of Jewish Studies, and it is still open today. In a count from 1890, most Jewish people spoke Hungarian as their first language.

Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)

Most Jewish families in Hungary did not have last names before 1783. In 1783, Emperor Joseph II ordered Jews to choose or be given German last names. Later, during a time of Hungarian pride, many Jewish families changed their last names to Hungarian ones.

In 1910, about 911,000 Jews lived in Hungary, making up nearly 5% of the country’s population. Budapest had the largest Jewish community, with around 203,000 Jews. Jews were successful in many areas, including business, medicine, and education. Many became important leaders in the government and culture of Hungary.

Interwar period (1918–1939)

Population

After World War I, many areas where Jewish people lived were no longer part of Hungary. In 1910, about half of Hungary's Jewish community stayed within the new, smaller Hungary, while the rest moved to places like Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, Austria, and Italy.

By 1930, the number of people saying they were Jewish stayed about the same in the area that was once Hungary. In Budapest and other towns, the Jewish population grew in some places and shrank in others. Many Jewish people were doctors, teachers, artists, and business owners.

Between 1919 and 1938, many Jewish people changed their religion, mostly leaving Judaism. This happened for many reasons, including strict laws passed in 1938.

In Budapest, Jewish people made up a big part of the city’s population, especially in some neighborhoods. In the countryside, most Jewish people followed Orthodox traditions, while in Budapest, more followed Neolog traditions.

Jewish people were successful in many areas of life, like science, sports, and the arts. Before World War I, many Olympic winners from Hungary were Jewish, but after the war, this number went down.

Some Jewish students went to study in other European countries because of limits on how many Jewish students could go to Hungarian universities.

Revolution

Main article: Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–1920)

Many Jewish people fought bravely for Hungary in World War I, but sad events followed the war. After the war, Hungary lost a lot of land and many people because of the Treaty of Trianon. This made many people in Hungary very upset.

A new government tried to bring change, but it was replaced by a group that wanted to control the country. Some leaders of this group were Jewish, and this led some people to believe false ideas about Jewish people helping to control others. When this group was stopped, another leader took over. His supporters were very harsh to anyone they thought opposed them, causing a lot of fear and sadness. These difficult times made some people in Hungary treat Jewish people unfairly.

Interwar years

Jews made up a large part of students and professionals in Hungary during this time. In 1920, about 60% of doctors, 51% of lawyers, and many engineers, chemists, editors, journalists, and musicians in Hungary were Jewish.

Some leaders in Hungary did not like this. One leader, Admiral Horthy, said he did not like Jews having such important roles in the country. Because Jews were noticeable in many jobs and areas of life, some people blamed them for problems in the country. This feeling led to unfair rules against Jews.

In 1920, a law called the "numerus clausus" was passed. This law limited the number of Jewish students at universities.

During these years, Hungary also started to support fascist countries like Germany and Italy. New groups that supported extreme ideas, such as the Hungarian National Socialist Party and the Arrow Cross Party, began to grow.

Jewish Conversions to Christianity in Hungary

Many people in Hungary decided to change their religious beliefs during a time between 1867 and 1918. About 20,000 individuals made this change during those years.

Anti-Jewish measures

Anti-Jewish Laws (1938–1942)

Starting in 1938, Hungary passed several unfair laws targeting Jewish people, copying rules from Germany. The first law in 1938 limited the number of Jewish people allowed to work in businesses, newspapers, and as doctors, engineers, or lawyers to only twenty percent. The second law in 1939 said someone was Jewish if they had two, three, or four Jewish grandparents. The third law in 1941 stopped Jewish people from marrying non-Jewish people and punished any such relationships. The fourth law in 1942 stopped Jewish people from owning or buying land.

These laws also stopped Jewish people from working in government jobs or being editors of newspapers. They could only make up six percent of actors in theaters and movies, and doctors, lawyers, and engineers. Private companies could not hire more than twelve percent Jewish workers. Because of these laws, around 250,000 Jewish people in Hungary lost their jobs and could not vote.

January 1941 census

In early 1941, a count showed that about six percent of Hungary’s people, or 846,000, were considered Jewish under these unfair laws. After Hungary took over some areas from nearby countries in 1941, the number went up to 861,000 people, or about six percent, who were at least half Jewish.

First massacres

In 1941, around 10,000 to 20,000 Jewish refugees from other places were sent away from Hungary to southern Poland, where many were harmed. In early 1942, during violent events near Újvidék, hundreds of Jewish people were sadly harmed along with many others.

During the war, Jewish people were forced to work in unsafe conditions, such as fixing railroads and clearing mines without proper tools. Many did not survive these harsh treatments.

The Holocaust

Main article: The Holocaust in Hungary

Germany invades Hungary

On March 18, 1944, Adolf Hitler called Hungarian leader Miklós Horthy to a meeting in Austria. Hitler wanted Hungary to follow Germany’s rules more closely. Though Horthy tried to resist, German tanks entered Budapest while he was at the meeting. A new government led by Döme Sztójay took control and allowed the Arrow Cross Party to organize. Right-wing leaders László Endre, László Baky, and Andor Jaross were in charge, all known for not liking Jews.

Soon after, German and Hungarian leaders created special groups called Judenräte across Hungary.

Deportation to Auschwitz

Adolf Eichmann, a German officer, arrived in Budapest to organize the movement of Jews. He and Hungarian police quickly made rules forcing Jews to wear a yellow star, live in certain areas, and leave their homes. They planned to send Jews from towns outside Budapest to a place called Auschwitz in groups of 12,000 each day.

Before the deportations started, a report called the Vrba-Wetzler Report reached leaders in other countries. They asked Horthy to stop the deportations. In July 1944, Horty finally ordered the deportations to stop. By that time, many Jews had already been sent away.

The first trains left in early May 1944. Each train held around 3,000 to 4,000 people. Over many weeks, hundreds of trains carried Jews to Auschwitz. Most of these people were not expected to survive.

Efforts to rescue Jews

Very few leaders in Hungary spoke out to stop the deportations. Some people worked to help Jews escape or hide. Leaders from other countries, like Pope Pius XII and President Franklin D. Roosevelt, also asked Horthy to stop.

Finally, in July 1944, Horthy ordered the deportations to stop. But some deportations continued for a short time after that.

Arrow Cross rule

After a change in leadership in October 1944, more terrible events happened. Many Jews in Budapest were forced to walk to the border. Some were killed along the way. Two areas in Budapest were set aside for Jews. One was protected by leaders from other countries. The other was a larger area walled off from the rest of the city.

Some people, like diplomats Raoul Wallenberg and Carl Lutz, helped save many Jews. Others also worked to protect people during this hard time.

Number of survivors

About 119,000 Jewish people were saved in Budapest when Soviet soldiers arrived in January 1945. In total, around 255,000 of Hungary’s Jewish population survived during this difficult time.

Communist rule

Further information: Hungarian People's Republic

After World War II, the number of Jews in Hungary dropped greatly. Many faced tough economic times and left the country. From 1945 to 1949, thousands of Jews moved to Israel and other Western countries.

During the early years of Communist rule, many leaders in the government and secret police were Jewish, though they followed strict Communist rules that did not allow religious practices. Later, these leaders were removed from power. Under Communist rule from 1948 to 1988, Jewish traditions were limited, and Zionism was banned. Some Jews were also moved from cities to smaller towns for a time.

Jews were involved on both sides during the uprising in 1956. After this event, around 20,000 Jews left Hungary, with many going to Israel and other countries. The Jewish population in Hungary continued to shrink due to people moving away, mixing with other groups, and having fewer children. By 1967, only about 80,000 to 90,000 Jews remained in Hungary. This number fell more before the Communist government ended in 1989.

Under the leadership of János Kádár, who ruled from 1957 to 1988, Jewish artists and scientists stayed important in Hungary's culture and learning. Hungary cut off diplomatic ties with Israel in 1967 after a war, but this did not lead to unfair treatment of Jews as it did in some other countries.

From the 1990s

See also: Revolutions of 1989 and 2006 protests in Hungary

Hungary's Jewish community grew smaller over time, especially during World War II and the Holocaust, as well as after the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Even so, by 2010, Hungary had the biggest Jewish community in Eastern Europe outside the former Soviet Union.

After the Cold War ended, Hungary helped many people from the Soviet Union travel to Israel. From 1989 to 1991, over 160,000 of these travelers passed through Hungary on their way to Israel. This happened thanks to teamwork between groups that helped Jewish people and a Hungarian airline. Leaders in Hungary, both old and new, supported this because they wanted Hungary to become more like Western countries and improve its relationship with Israel. Even though there were some scary threats, Hungary kept helping these travelers.

After the government changed in Hungary, two important leaders had Jewish family backgrounds: József Antall from 1990 to 1993 and Gyula Horn from 1994 to 1998.

In 1997, Hungary made a law to return items that were taken from Jewish people during the time of the Nazis and the Communist government. This law gave back property and money to groups that cared for Jewish history and to people who suffered during the Holocaust.

Some people thought the money given back was not enough and did not truly fix the wrong done. They felt that the focus on the Communist time overshadowed the terrible events of the Holocaust. They also noted that some people who got their property back might have taken those items from Jewish people during the Nazi time. Later, the government tried to help Holocaust survivors more by offering money for each family member who had suffered.