Nabataean religion

The Nabataean religion was a form of Arab polytheism practiced in Nabataea, an ancient Arab nation that was well established by the third century BCE and lasted until the Roman annexation in 106 CE. The Nabateans believed in many gods and goddesses, worshipping local deities as well as well-known ones such as Baalshamin, Isis, and even gods from Greek and Roman traditions like Tyche and Dionysus.

People in Nabataea held their religious services in temples, special outdoor places called high places, and simple stone shapes known as betyls. Unlike many other ancient cultures, they often used simple shapes and designs instead of statues in their holy places, a style called aniconic.

The Nabateans performed ceremonies that involved offerings and other special acts to honor their gods. They also believed that life continued after death, though much of what we know about the items placed in graves to help people in the afterlife has been lost because of theft over many years.

Gods and goddesses

The Nabataean religion included many gods and goddesses from the pre-Islamic Arab pantheon, as well as some from other places like Isis and Atargatis.

One important god was Dushara, meaning "Lord of the Mountain," who was highly respected in Petra and seen as the main god by the Nabataeans. After the Romans took over, Dushara was linked with other gods such as Dionysus, Zeus, and Helios. Another goddess, Manāt, was honored for bringing rain and help in battles. Al-Lāt was a well-known goddess in Northern Arabia and Syria, sometimes thought to be connected to Athena. She was worshipped in Palmyra. Al-'Uzza was another goddess, linked to Aphrodite and thought to be very powerful. Baalshamin was a sky god, similar to the Greek Zeus. Other gods and goddesses included Qos, Hubal, and Isis, showing the Nabataeans honored many different deities from many places.

External influences on gods/goddesses

Many of the gods and goddesses worshipped by the Nabataean people came from other cultures. During Roman rule, Nabataean gods often became linked with Greek and Roman gods. For example, the Egyptian goddess Isis was worshipped by the Nabataeans, Greeks, and Romans alike. The god Dushara was sometimes seen as similar to Dionysius. Temples also featured gods like Helios and Eros. After the Romans took control of Nabataea, some tombs began to honor Greek and Roman gods instead of traditional Nabataean ones. In the temple of Qasr, people worshipped Aphrodite (who was also known as al-‘Uzza) and Dushara.

Relationships between the gods

The ways Nabataean gods and goddesses were connected are not always easy to understand because there isn’t much evidence. In some parts of the Nabataean kingdom, gods and goddesses were thought of as husband and wife, but in other places, they weren’t. For example, the god Dushara was sometimes seen as the husband of Al-Lat and other times as her son. Al-Lat, Al-‘Uzza, and Manāt were often called the daughters of the main god Allah. In some areas, Al-Lat and Al-‘Uzza were even thought to be the same goddess.

Rituals and animals

In the city of Petra, there were special paths that connected different temples, like the Qasr el-Bint temple and the Temple of the Winged Lions. These paths likely helped people move between important places for ceremonies. The Nabataeans also visited the tombs of their family members for special meals, using sweet smells and scented oils. They sometimes left gifts inside the tombs to remember those who had passed away. Some rituals included using animals like birds, goats, and dogs. They also sometimes offered camels to their gods, especially to Dushara.

Sacred objects or animals

The Nabataeans used special objects and animals in their worship. They had niches, which were like tiny temples with stone pillars called betyls carved from rock. Sometimes, they used altars to honor their gods. Sacred animals such as eagles, serpents, sphinxes, and griffins were often found on the tombs of the Nabataeans.

There was little destruction of religious images, called iconoclasm. Most gods were shown as betyls, sometimes carved in relief or carried in processions. When gods were shown in human form, they were often simple "eye-idol" betyls. Because of influences from Greece and Rome, statues of Nabataean gods also existed. For example, the goddess Isis is shown in human form, possibly because she was honored in places like Egypt and Rome. The god Dushara was shown in both betyl and statue forms across the Nabataean kingdom.

Places of worship

The Nabataeans had many places for religious practices, known as "high places." These were open-air shrines, temples, and altars usually built on mountains. These special spots across the Nabataean kingdom were for worshipping many gods, though the exact ways of worship changed from place to place. People made offerings like goods, food, and sometimes animals.

The Negev and Hejaz

Sobata

Main article: Shivta

Sobata, a major city about 40 km southwest of Beersheba, has very few remains of Nabataean worship places. But a little evidence shows that people worshipped Dushara there.

Avdat

Main article: Avdat

Avdat, in the mountains southeast of Sobata, mainly honoured the deified Obodas I. People built temples there, including one for the deified Obodas III.

Rawwafah

Rawwafah, 300 km from Petra, has one temple in the Nabataean style. An inscription shows it was built after the Nabataean kingdom ended.

Mampsis

Main article: Mampsis

Mampsis, about 81 km from Petra, was an important stop on the incense trade route. Archaeologists found Nabataean buildings and water systems there.

The Hauran

Bostra

Main article: Bosra

Bostra, in southern Syria, was the northern capital of the Nabataean kingdom. People built temples at major spots in the city, including one for Dushara-A'ra, the god of the Nabataean kings and Bostra.

Seeia

Seeia, north of Bostra near Canatha, has three large temples. The biggest is for Baalshamin, and the smaller ones may honour local gods or goddesses.

Avraham Negev wrote in 1988 about Seeia (Seia, Sî) in northern Hauran (ancient Auranitis), with its 3 temples and a necropolis, but cautions that inscriptions found in the main temple, although written in what is known as Nabatean-Aramaic script and language, refer to the 'Ubaishat tribe, which belonged to the Safaitic-Thamudic group of tribes, not the Nabatu (Nabataeans). This situation has been encountered in several settlements of the Hauran, where some inscriptions use this same language and are sometimes dated by regnal years of Nabatean kings.

Sahr

The temples here look like those in Wadi Rum, Dharih, Tannur, and Qasrawet.

Sur

The temples here also resemble those in Wadi Rum, Dharih, Tannur, and Qasrawet.

Suweida

Further information: As-Suwayda

The temples here are like those near Petra in Wadi Rum, Dharih, Tannur, and Qasrawet. Nabataean writings show people honoured Al-Lat and Baalshamin.

Central Jordan

Khirbet Tannur

Khirbet Tannur, in Central Jordan, has a temple on top of a mountain. It is hard to reach, which may mean it was very important. The inside has pictures of plants, fruits, and gods.

Khirbet edh-Dharih

Main article: Khirbet edh-Dharih

Khirbet edh-Dharih, 7 km south of Hurawa, has a very well-preserved temple. It has courtyards, pathways, and benches, but we do not know which god people honoured there.

Southern Jordan

Petra

Main article: Petra

Petra, the capital of the Nabataean Kingdom around 312 BC, is famous for its rock-cut buildings. People honoured Dushara and goddesses like Al-'Uzzá, Al-Lat, and Manāt. They also worshipped deified kings like Obodas I. The temples show styles from Rome, Greece, Egypt, and Persia. The High Place had altars for offerings and sacrifices.

Hawara

Hawara has a long path leading to a courtyard overlooking Jebel Qalkha. The design suggests people may have honoured Dushara or even Jupiter there.

Wadi Rum

Wadi Rum has a temple for Al-Lat, with a sanctuary for Ayn esh-Shallaleh behind it. There are also places for Dushara and Baalshamin.

Northwestern Saudi Arabia

Hegra

Main article: Hegra (Mada'in Salih)

Hegra, known today as Mada’in Saleh, has a ritual circle on a mountain. There are small stone shapes and niches for other gods. An inscription may refer to Dushara.

Outside the Middle East

The Puteoli Nabataean inscriptions show that Nabataean religion existed in Puteoli, now Pozzuoli, Italy. In 2023, divers found a submerged Nabataean temple at the port. This is the only known Nabataean temple outside their homeland. The temple used local Roman building methods and had Latin inscriptions. Writings like "Dusari sacrum" show it was for worshipping Dushara. The temple was filled with concrete after Rome took control in AD 106, ending Nabataean trade.

Processional ways

The path people took to reach places of worship differed depending on the location. Some paths were just simple rock trails with no decorations. However, in places like Petra, the paths were more elaborate, featuring carvings, monuments, sculptures, special stone shapes called betyls, and sometimes tall stone pillars called obelisks. In Petra, the path included notable spots such as the Lion Fountain, a carved lion, the Garden Tomb, and the Nabataean Quarry.

Temple layout

Nabataean temples had many different designs, and there was no single standard way they looked. The Nabataeans took ideas from the cultures they traded with, including Greek, Roman, Persian, Egyptian, and Syrian styles, and used these influences in their temple buildings.

Betyls

Betyls were special stone blocks that the Nabataeans used to represent their gods. The word "betyl" comes from a Greek story about stones that fell from the sky. These stones were often placed on altars where people performed religious ceremonies. Sometimes, betyls were also found in tombs.

There were many different shapes of betyls, including plain rectangular slabs, rounded tops, dome shapes, and even stones with faces carved on them. Scholars wonder whether these betyls were seen as holding the gods inside or as actual images of the gods. Some marks on the floors and altars suggest that betyls might have been kept safe and then moved to special places for worship.

Rituals

The Nabataeans had special ways to honor their gods. They often gave offerings like wine and incense, especially to the sun god Dushara every day. They also gave precious metals like silver and gold to their gods, though it is not clear if these were like taxes.

Animals were sometimes used in special ceremonies to please the gods. There are old stories about a boy being used in a ceremony, but there is no proof that the Nabataeans did this. Some writings suggest they may have celebrated a special event in the spring, based on inscriptions from a month called Nisan.

Strabo Porphyry De Abstenentia Dushara Dumat Al-Jandal human sacrifice Dushara-A’ra Nisan

Funerary rituals

The Nabataeans built rock-cut tombs to serve as resting places for the dead. They believed that the deceased continued to live after death and needed care, much like the ancient Egyptians. Wealthier families often added gardens and dining areas around their tombs for feasting. Symbols like eagles, representing the god Dushara, were sometimes carved above doorways for protection.

Many tombs had inscriptions that listed rules about who could use the tomb and what actions were not allowed. These inscriptions also described punishments for breaking the rules. Such inscriptions were common in places like Mada'in Saleh, but most tombs in Petra did not have them. The items left in tombs, such as vessels for feasting, suggest that the Nabataeans believed the afterlife was a place where people could enjoy meals and spend time with loved ones. The way tombs were built and the items placed inside give us clues about their beliefs.