Rusyn language

Rusyn is an East Slavic language spoken by Rusyns in parts of Central and Eastern Europe. It is written in the Cyrillic script, and most speakers live in Carpathian Ruthenia. This area includes Transcarpathia and parts of eastern Slovakia and south-eastern Poland. There is also a group of Rusyn speakers in Vojvodina, Serbia, and Rusyn communities around the world.

Rusyn is recognized as a protected minority language under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in several countries, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Poland, Serbia, and Slovakia. Whether Rusyn is considered a separate language or a dialect of Ukrainian is debated among linguists. Some countries and scholars see it as its own distinct language, while others view it as a dialect of Ukrainian.

Name

In English, the term Rusyn is officially recognized. Other names, such as Ruthenian or Ruthene, are sometimes used too. These names can mean different things, so people add words like "Carpathian" to specify, such as Carpathian Ruthenian.

Within the Rusyn community, the language is also called rusnac'kyj jazyk, meaning "Rusnak language," or simply our way in Carpathian Rusyn.

Classification

The Rusyn language has been a topic of debate for both language experts and governments. In the 1800s, scholars had different ideas about the dialects spoken in the Carpathian mountains. Some thought they were just types of the Russian language. Others believed they were western versions of the Ukrainian language. And some argued they were unique enough to be their own East Slavic language.

Even with these disagreements, the government of Austria-Hungary kept calling all these East Slavic dialects in its lands the Ruthenian language, using this name until 1918.

Geographic distribution

The Rusyn language is mainly spoken in two areas. The first is Carpathian Rusyn, spoken in Zakarpattia Oblast in Ukraine, northeastern Slovakia, southeastern Poland (where it is called the Lemko language), northeastern Hungary, and northern Romania in Maramureș.

The second is Pannonian Rusyn, spoken by the Pannonian Rusyns in Vojvodina in Serbia and nearby Slavonia in Croatia. There are also Rusyn speakers in diaspora communities in North America, especially in the United States and Canada, as well as in Western Europe and Australia.

Varieties

Carpathian Rusyn varieties

Further information: Lemko dialect, Transcarpathian dialect, and Boyko dialect

The main group of Rusyn varieties stretches from Transcarpathia through the Carpathian Mountains into South-Eastern Poland and Eastern Slovakia, called Carpathian Ruthenia. Like all languages, the main types of Rusyn change in sounds, word forms, and sentence structure. They also have special features, and many smaller local types. The group of Rusyn types includes Lemko and Bojko, and usually includes Hutsul, which is more like a type of Ukrainian.

Literary languages

Today, there are three official Rusyn types used in writing, plus one common type in Subcarpathia. Creating a written Rusyn language took almost two hundred years of work by writers and scholars. Often, a grammar book would be written, but it wouldn’t be widely used, mainly because of politics.

Some early grammar books were written by Dmytro Vyslotsky (Karpatorusskij bukvar'), Vanja Hunjanky (1931), Metodyj Trochanovskij (Bukvar: Perša knyžečka dlja narodnıx škol; 1935), and Ivan Haraida (1941). Haraida’s grammar was important because it came when many Rusyn books were being printed in Uzhhorod, Ukraine, from 1939 to 1944, and his grammar was the standard used.

Prešov Rusyn

In Slovakia, the Prešov type has been officially developed since 1995. It is named after the city and area of Prešov, which have long been centers for Rusyn learning and people. Prešov Rusyn is based on the language spoken in a small area in the Prešov Region, between several towns and villages. Though many Rusyn types exist in Slovakia, this small group was chosen to create a clear standard for writing and speaking.

Its writing system is mostly based on Zhelekhivka, an old type of Ukrainian alphabet.

Lemko Rusyn

In Poland, a standard grammar and dictionary for Lemko Rusyn, Gramatyka języka łemkowskiego, ‘Grammar of the Lemko Language’ was published in 2000.

Subcarpathian Rusyn

In Transcarpathia, Ukraine, a book by M. Almašij and Igor Kerča is used as the common but unofficial standard for Subcarpathian Rusyn. Published in 1999, it has been used by Rusyn writers in Uzhhorod, though with some changes.

Common usage

Even with these official types, many Rusyn books use a mix of the three Carpathian standards, especially in Hungary and Transcarpathia. Some people also try to bring back old writing styles, and parts of Rusyn Wikipedia use different standards.

Pannonian Rusyn

Main article: Pannonian Rusyn

Pannonian Rusyn is sometimes seen as a very different type of Carpathian Rusyn or even a separate language. The writers of the ISO 639-9 identifier for Pannonian Rusyn say it is closest to what some call východoslovenský, Pan. Rusyn: виходнярски, [lit. 'East Slovak'], based on the speech of Trebišov and Prešov areas.

Literary language

The literary type used by Serbian and Croatian Rusyns is quite different from the three Carpathian types in words and grammar. It was first made standard in 1923. The modern standard has been developed since the 1980s.

History

The Rusyn language has a long history. Early signs of the language appear in documents from the 18th century. One important early text is the Niagovo Postilla from 1758, which shows features of the modern Rusyn language.

The first books for Rusyn readers were printed in the late 1600s under the direction of bishop Joseph Decamillis. These included a catechism and a language primer. More books for Rusyn students were published in the late 1700s under Bishop Andriy Bachynskyi.

In the 1800s, writers began using a mix of Church Slavonic and Rusyn. In 1847, priest Alexander Dukhnovych published the first textbook almost entirely in the Rusyn language. He also started a cultural group that published more books in Rusyn.

After World War I, the area where Rusyn speakers lived changed hands several times. Some countries recognized Rusyn as a minority language, while others did not.

Since 1995, Rusyn has been recognized as a minority language in Slovakia. International groups also recognize Rusyn as a distinct language. The International Organization for Standardization gave Rusyn its own code, helping to support its use and study.

Phonology

Consonants

Some dialects of the Rusyn language have a special soft sound made by combining certain letters. In the north and west areas, this sound is like [ʃʲt͡ʃʲ], while in the east, including where the main version of the language comes from, it sounds more like [ʃʲʃʲ]. This kind of sound might have changed over time into a softer, smoother sound like [ʃʲ].

Vowels

Certain vowel sounds in Rusyn, like /ɪ/ and /ɤ/, often sound a bit more centered, similar to [ɪ̈] and [ɤ̈].

Grammar

Noun declension

Rusyn uses different endings for words depending on their role in a sentence. Like English, it has two numbers: singular (one) and plural (many). It also has three genders: feminine, masculine, and neuter. Rusyn uses seven cases to show how words relate to each other in a sentence.

One special rule is for masculine words. They can be either living things or non-living things. When talking about living things, the way the word changes for the accusative case is the same as for the genitive case.

Grammatical cases

Rusyn cases work similarly to other Slavic languages. Nouns change their endings to show which case they are in. There are four types of nouns based on how their endings change.

• Type I: feminine nouns ending in -а/-я in the basic form
• Type II:
  • masculine nouns ending in a consonant in the basic form
  • neuter and masculine nouns ending in a consonant or -o in the basic form
  • neuter nouns ending in -e or -а/-я in the basic form
• Type III:
  • feminine nouns ending in a paired consonant (-cons.+ь), an unpaired palato-alveolar consonant (-ш, -ч, щ, -ж, or -дж), or -ов in the basic form
  • the feminine noun мати, maty, 'mother'
• Type IV: neuter nouns ending in -а/-я in the basic form

Declension type I: feminines ending in -а/-я

This type includes feminine nouns ending in -а or -я. There are two patterns for these nouns. The second pattern has unusual endings for some cases, which developed historically due to societal roles.

Declension type II: masculines and neuters

This type includes many nouns of both masculine and neuter genders. It includes nouns ending in consonants, -o, -e, or -а/-я.

Masculines ending in consonants

This group has many identical forms between cases. For singular living things, the accusative and genitive cases share the same form. For singular non-living things, the basic form and locative cases share the same form.

Neuters or masculines ending in -o, neuters ending in -e or -а/-я

This table shows how nouns ending in -o change their endings. Most of these nouns are neuter.

Declension type III: other feminines

All nouns in this type are feminine. They can be recognized by endings like -cons.+ь, -ш, -ч, щ, -ж, -дж, or -ов. The noun мати, maty, 'mother' is also in this type.

Declension type IV: neuters ending in -а/-я

This type is used very rarely. It includes neuter nouns ending in -а or -я. All nouns in this type change their endings in the same way.

Verbal conjugation

Verbs change their endings based on tense and subject. There are two main conjugation types, identified by special markers in the verb stem. Some infinitive endings are unique to one type.

Conjugation type I

Type I has several sub-types, the most notable being vowel+j stem-markers like -uj-, -ij-, -yj-, etc. The consonant -j- may be dropped in some forms.

UJ stem markers

The -uj- verbs can be split into two groups based on whether they have -ova- or -uj- in the infinitive.

IJ stem markers

Verbs with -IJ- are often made from adjectives and mean "to become" a certain way.

YJ stem markers

There are very few verbs in this category, but they are commonly used.

ЫJ stem markers

This works similarly to the previous type.

AJ stem markers

The -AJ- type varies by region. In Prešov Rusyn, -A(J)- is common, while -AJ- is limited. In Lemko Rusyn, -AJ- is rare. In Subcarpathian Rusyn, -AJ- is common.

AVA stem markers

This type has -AVA- in the infinitive. How it changes depends on the local dialect.

A stem markers

NU stem markers

Non-syllabic stem markers

Consonant stems

Conjugation type II

Y-type I

Y-type II

I-type

Palato-alveolar stems

Irregular verbs

Orthography

Each Rusyn language version uses its own Cyrillic alphabet. The table below shows the Rusyn alphabet used in the Prešov area, with notes about other versions. The alphabets for other Rusyn areas, like Lemko Rusyn and Subcarpathian Rusyn, are a little different. For the Pannonian Rusyn alphabet, see Pannonian Rusyn language § Alphabet.

Romanization (writing Rusyn letters using the regular English alphabet) follows several systems, including ALA-LC, BGN/PCGN, and ISO standards.

Usage notes

Number of letters and relationship to the Ukrainian alphabet

The Prešov Rusyn alphabet in Slovakia has 36 letters. It includes all the letters of the Ukrainian alphabet plus ё, ы, and ъ.

The Lemko Rusyn alphabet in Poland has 34 letters. It includes most Ukrainian letters but not ї, plus ы and ъ.

The Pannonian Rusyn alphabet has 32 letters, which are all the Ukrainian letters except і.

Alphabetical order

The Rusyn alphabets all place ь after я, like the Ukrainian alphabet did until 1990. Most Cyrillic alphabets place ь before э (if present), ю, and я.

The Lemko and Prešov Rusyn alphabets place ъ at the very end, while most Cyrillic alphabets place it after щ. They also place ы before й, while most Cyrillic alphabets place it after ш, щ (if present), and ъ (if present).

In the Prešov Rusyn alphabet, і and ї come before и, and the same is true in the Lemko Rusyn alphabet (which does not have ї). In the Ukrainian alphabet, however, и comes before і and ї, and the Pannonian Rusyn alphabet (which does not have і) follows this by placing и before ї.

Comparison to other Slavic languages

There are some differences between Rusyn and other Slavic languages that use the Cyrillic script.

Sample text

The Rusyn language is an East Slavic language spoken by people called Rusyns. It uses the Cyrillic alphabet for writing. Most speakers live in a place called Carpathian Ruthenia, which includes areas in Transcarpathia, eastern Slovakia, and south-eastern Poland. There is also a smaller group of speakers in Vojvodina, which is part of Serbia, as well as Rusyn communities around the world.

Lemko Rusyn Того року одбыла ся уж друга стріча габурскых родаків, котрых на Сільському уряді в Габурі 8. липця 2006, на ридни земли привитал староста села М. Ющік. Щиры слова подякы і гордости за шыриня доброй славы свого села, витаня медже довго невидженыма родаками, спомины давных часив, Габури, родини і традициі были не лем на стрічи родаків, але і на цілим дводньовим культурно-суспільним і спортовим сьвяті, яке ся одбыло під назвом «Габура співає і спортує». Prešov Rusyn Того року ся одбыла уж друга стріча габурскых родаків, котрых на Сельскім уряді в Габурі 8. юла 2006, на роднім ґрунті привитав староста села М. Ющік. Слова до душы, подякы і гордости за шыріня доброго хыру о своїм селі, витаня довго невидженых родаків, споминаня на давны часы, на Габуру, на родину і традіції мали свій простор нелем на стрічі родаків але і на цілій двадньовій културно-сполоченьскій і шпортовій акції, яка ся одбывала під назвом: «Габура співає і шпортує.» Pannonian Rusyn Того року ше одбуло уж друге стретнуце габурчанох по походзеню, хторих у Валалским уряду, у Габури 8. юлия 2006. року, на родней груди привитал староста валалу М. Ющик. Щири слова, подзековносц, пиха и гордосц пре добри глас о своїм валалу, витаня длуго нєвидзеней родзини, здогадованя на давни часи, на Габуру, на родзину и традицию, мали свойо место нє лєм на стретнуцох родзини, алє и на цалей дводньовей културно-уметнїцкей и спортовей програми хтора ше одбувала под назву: «Габура шпива и шпортує». Subcarpathian Rusyn Того года ся удбыла друга встріча габурськых родаку, котрых на селищному урядови в Габурови 8. юла 2006, на руднуй земли поздоровив староста села М. Ющік. Слова ид души, дякы ай гордости за поширіня доброї славы свойого села, поздоровліня довго невидженых родаку, нагадованя за давні часы, Габуры, родины ай традіцій мали місто не лем на встрічі родаку, айбо и на ціле двадньовному културно-сполочинському тай шпортовному сятови, котроє удбывало из имньом «Габура співат ай занимат ся шпортом».. Ukrainian Того року відбулася друга зустріч габурських земляків, яких на Сільському уряді в Габурі 8 липня 2006 року, на рідній землі привітав староста села М. Ющік. Щирі слова подяки й гордості за поширення доброї слави свого села, вітання довго не бачених земляків, спомини давніх часів, Габури, родини та традицій мали місце не лише на зустрічі земляків, але й на дводенному культурно-суспільному та спортивному святі, яке відбувалося під назвою «Габура співає та займається спортом». English That year, the second meeting of fellow countrymen from Gabura took place, and the village headman M. Yushchik welcomed them to their native land at the Village Government in Gabura on July 8, 2006. Sincere words of gratitude and pride for spreading the good fame of their village, greetings from fellow countrymen who had not been seen for a long time, memories of old times, Gabura, family and traditions took place not only at the meeting of fellow countrymen, but also at a two-day cultural, social and sports festival, which was held under the title "Gabura sings and does sports."