Second Sudanese Civil War

The Second Sudanese Civil War was a long and difficult conflict that happened from 1983 to 2005. It was fought between the government of Sudan and a group called the Sudan People's Liberation Army. This war started in southern Sudan but later spread to places like the Nuba Mountains and the Blue Nile. It lasted for almost 22 years, making it one of the longest civil wars ever recorded.

Because of the fighting, many terrible things happened. About two million people died from the war, from hunger, and from sicknesses that spread because of the conflict. Four million people in southern Sudan had to leave their homes many times during the war. This war caused many serious problems for people’s safety and well-being.

In the end, this war led to the creation of a new country. Six years after the war stopped in 2005, South Sudan became an independent nation. The story of this war shows how important peace and understanding are, especially in places where people have different ideas about how a country should be run.

Background and causes

Further information: History of Sudan (1956–1969) and History of Sudan (1969–1985)

See also: First Sudanese Civil War

Wars in Sudan often happen because the central government tries to control areas farther away. For many years, leaders along the Nile River have fought with people living farther inland.

When British leaders ruled Sudan, they kept the north and south separate. The south had different traditions and was closer to East African countries like Kenya and Uganda. After Sudan became independent, most power went to leaders from the north, which made people in the south unhappy. The second civil war was also about control of oil, which is very important for the country's money. Different groups in the south also fought among themselves.

Course of the war

Before 1985

Addis Ababa Agreement ended

The Addis Ababa Agreement had been included in the Constitution of Sudan, but breaking this agreement started the second civil war.

The first problems began when President Gaafar Nimeiry tried to take control of oil fields along the north–south border. Oil was found in Bentiu in 1978, in southern Kordofan and Upper Blue Nile in 1979, the Unity oilfields in 1980, the Adar oilfields in 1981, and in Heglig in 1982. Controlling these oil fields brought great wealth.

Islamic leaders in the north were unhappy with the Addis Ababa Agreement, which gave some freedom to the non-Islamic majority in Southern Sudan Autonomous Region. These leaders grew more powerful, and in 1983 President Nimeiry declared all of Sudan an Islamic state, ending the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region and beginning the Second Sudanese Civil War.

Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA)

In May 1983, a group of soldiers in the Sudanese military rebelled in the towns of Bor and Pibor. Government forces tried to stop the rebellion but were driven back by the rebels.

The Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) was formed in 1983 as a rebel group, aiming to reestablish an autonomous southern Sudan by fighting the central government. Based in southern Sudan, it said it stood for all oppressed Sudanese citizens, and was led by John Garang. At first, the SPLA campaigned for a united Sudan, criticizing the central government for policies that were splitting the nation apart.

In September 1985 the Government of Sudan announced the end of the state of emergency and dismantled the emergency courts but soon introduced a new judiciary act, which kept many of the emergency court practices. Even though Nimeiry publicly said that the rights of non-Muslims would be respected, southerners and other non-Muslims remained very distrustful.

1985–1991

Further information: Transitional Military Council (1985) and History of Sudan (1986–present)

On 6 April 1985, senior military officers led by General Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab took control of the government. Among their first actions was to cancel the 1983 constitution, reverse the declaration making Sudan an Islamic state, and disband Nimeiry's Sudanese Socialist Union. However, the “September laws” putting Islamic Sharia law in place were not canceled.

A 15-member military council was created, led by al-Dahab, in 1985. Working with a meeting of political parties, unions, and professional groups known as the “Gathering,” the military council appointed an interim civilian government, led by Prime Minister Dr. Al-Jazuli Daf'allah. Elections were held in April 1986, and the military council handed power to a civilian government as promised. The government was led by Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi of the Umma Party. It was a coalition of the Umma Party, the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), the National Islamic Front (NIF) of Hassan al-Turabi, and several southern region parties. This coalition broke up and reformed several times over the next few years, with Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi and his Umma Party always playing a central role.

Negotiation and escalation

In May 1986, the Sadiq al-Mahdi government began peace talks with the SPLA led by Col. John Garang. That year the SPLA and some Sudanese political parties met in Ethiopia and agreed to the “Koka Dam” declaration, which called for ending Islamic Sharia law and holding a constitutional meeting. In 1988, the SPLA and the DUP agreed on a peace plan calling for ending military agreements with Egypt and Libya, stopping Sharia law, ending the state of emergency, and a cease-fire. However, during this time the second civil war became more violent, and the national economy kept getting worse. When prices of basic goods rose in 1988, protests happened, and the price increases were canceled. When Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi refused to approve a peace plan agreed to by the DUP and the SPLA in November 1988, the DUP left the government. The new government was mostly the Umma Party and the Islamic fundamentalist NIF. In February 1989, the army gave Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi an ultimatum: he could move toward peace or be removed. He decided to form a new government with the DUP, and approved the SPLA/DUP peace plan. A constitutional meeting was planned for September 1989.

Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation

Main article: 1989 Sudanese coup d'état

On 30 June 1989, military officers under Col. Omar Hassan al-Bashir, with support from the NIF, replaced Sadiq al-Mahdi's government with the Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation (RCC), a military junta of 15 officers (reduced to 12 in 1991) helped by a civilian government. General al-Bashir became president, chief of state, prime minister, and chief of the armed forces.

The RCC banned trade unions, political parties, and other “non-religious” groups. About 78,000 members of the army, police, and civil service were removed to change the government.

Criminal Act of 1991

In March 1991, a new law, the Criminal Act of 1991, brought harsh punishments across the country, including cutting off body parts and stoning. Even though the southern states were officially not included in these Islamic rules and punishments, the 1991 law said that Islamic Sharia law might be used in the south someday. In 1993, the government moved most non-Muslim judges from the south to the north, putting Muslim judges in the south instead. The creation of Public Order Police to enforce Sharia law led to the arrest and punishment under Sharia rules of southerners and other non-Muslims living in the north.

Conduct of the war: 1991–2001

The Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) controlled large parts of Equatoria, Bahr al Ghazal, and Upper Nile provinces and also operated in the southern parts of Darfur, Kordofan, and Blue Nile provinces. The government held several major southern towns and cities, including Juba, Wau, and Malakal. A temporary pause in fighting in May fell apart in October 1989.

In July 1992, a government attack took many parts of southern Sudan and captured the SPLA headquarters in Torit.

Both the government army and the Popular Defense Forces (PDF) were used to attack and raid villages in the south and in the Nuba Mountains. Sudan's governments have often used local groups to fight their wars and keep their main forces safe. These groups were recruited locally, with secret ties to the national government. Many groups supported by Khartoum were created and armed by the NIF as part of a “divide and rule” plan.

The many actions of fighters and pro-government soldiers and growing lawlessness in southern Sudan led to many communities forming armed groups for protection. Ethnic fighting became common, and all sides targeted civilians to weaken their enemies' power and recruitment. Those who could formed self-defense groups, often based on family and tribal ties because these were the only things most southern people could still trust. In this way, groups like the Nuer White Army and Dinka Titweng (“cattle guard”) militias appeared. Though they started to protect communities, they often became violent groups that attacked people of other ethnic groups. The government and rebel groups used these tensions and self-defense groups to trouble their enemies.

The Sudanese Armed Forces became known for harshly treating anyone who disagreed with the government. People thought to disloyal or to support rebels were arrested and taken to prisons and barracks, where they were hurt and killed. Hundreds, maybe thousands of people were killed at the famous “White House” — the Giada barracks in Juba — alone. At the same time, the SPLA harshly treated anyone who disagreed with them, including other rebel groups like the Anyanya II fighters and critics within their own ranks. Garang became known for strict leadership, and ordered the hurting and killing of several SPLA commanders who disagreed with him. Over time, more SPLA members became unhappy with his rule and started planning against him.

SPLA infighting

In August 1991, disagreement among the rebels led opponents of Garang's leadership, most importantly Riek Machar and Lam Akol, to try to take control from him. It failed, and the dissenters split off to form their own SPLA group, the SPLA-Nasir. On 15 November 1991, Machar's SPLA-Nasir together with the Nuer White Army carried out the Bor massacre, killing an estimated 2000 Dinka civilians. In September 1992, William Nyuon Bany formed a second rebel group, and in February 1993, Kerubino Kuanyin Bol formed a third rebel group. On 5 April 1993, the three rebel groups announced a union called SPLA United at a news meeting in Nairobi, Kenya.

Sudanese alignments

During 1990 and 1991, the Sudanese government supported Saddam Hussein in the Gulf War. This changed how America saw the country. Bill Clinton’s administration stopped American investment in the country and gave money to neighboring countries to stop Sudanese attacks. The US also began trying to “isolate” Sudan and called it a rogue state.

Since 1993, leaders of Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Kenya have worked on a peace plan for Sudan led by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), but results have been mixed. Even with this, the IGAD plan shared the 1994 Declaration of Principles (DOP) that aimed to find the key parts needed for a fair and full peace agreement; that is, the link between religion and the state, sharing power, sharing money, and the right of self-determination for the south. The Sudanese Government did not sign the DOP until 1997 after big losses to the SPLA on the battlefield.

SPLA alignments

Further information: Khartoum Peace Agreement of 1997, Operation Thunderbolt (1997), and War of the Peters

In 1995, opposition groups in the north joined with parties from the south to create a group of opposition parties called the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). This development opened a new front in the northeast to the civil war, making it a country-wide fight rather than just a north–south fight. The SPLA, DUP, and Umma Parties were the main groups in the NDA, along with several smaller parties and northern ethnic groups.

In 1995, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Uganda increased their military help to the SPLA to the point of sending troops into Sudan. Eritrean and Ethiopian military help weakened when the two countries started a border fight in 1998. Uganda's help weakened when it focused on the fight in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

By 1997, seven groups in the government side, led by former Garang officer Riek Machar, signed the Khartoum Peace Agreement with the NIF, forming the mostly symbolic South Sudan Defence Forces (SSDF) group. Also, the government signed the Nuba Mountains, and Fashoda agreements with rebel groups. These included the Khartoum agreements that ended fighting between the government and important rebel groups. Many of those leaders then moved to Khartoum where they took small roles in the central government, or worked with the government in fighting the SPLA. These three agreements matched the terms and conditions of the IGAD agreement, calling for some self-rule for the south and the right of self-determination. Still, the SPLA made big gains in 1997 because of the success of Operation Thunderbolt, an attack during which the southern Sudanese separatists took most of Central and Western Equatoria from the government.

In July 2000, the Libyan/Egyptian Joint Initiative on the Sudan called for an interim government, sharing power, changing the constitution, and new elections. Southern critics said the joint initiative did not deal with the link between religion and the state and did not mention the right of self-determination. Some critics thought it was more about solving issues among northern political parties and protecting Egypt's security interests rather than keeping Sudan united.

Later operations and peace agreement of 2005

Peace talks between the southern rebels and the government made good progress in 2003 and early 2004, though fights in parts of the south kept happening. A Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed on 9 January 2005 in Nairobi. The peace treaty terms were:

• The south would have self-rule for six years, followed by a vote on independence (the 2011 South Sudanese independence referendum).
• Both sides would combine parts of their armies into a 39,000-strong force after six years (the Joint Integrated Units), if the vote for South Sudanese independence failed.
• Oil money was shared equally between the government and SPLA during the six years of self-rule.
• Jobs were shared in different amounts (central government: 70 to 30, Abyei/Blue Nile State/Nuba Mountains: 55 to 45, favoring the government).
• Islamic Sharia law applied in the north, while how Sharia would be used in the south was decided by the elected group.

The status of three central and eastern areas was a point of argument in the talks.

The SPLA said that about 2 million people had died in southern Sudan alone because of the war.

Impact

The Second Sudanese Civil War caused major damage to Sudan's economy. The farming industry was hit hardest, with many farmers leaving their land and important farming projects stopping. This led to a big drop in animals like cows, sheep, and goats. Factories also struggled to make everyday items like soap, clothes, sugar, and food.

The war damaged roads, bridges, and other important structures. Schools suffered too, with less money for education and many teachers unable to work. In South Sudan, many children could not go to school because they were taken to fight. The war also hurt the environment, with people cutting down trees for survival. Millions of people were forced to leave their homes, changing their lives forever. Women worked hard to support their communities during the war and continued to fight for change after it ended.

Foreign involvement

Some countries and companies were involved in the conflict in different ways. In 2000, a report showed that a company called Talisman helped the Sudanese government during the war. This led to protests in Canada, but the company said they used the money to build infrastructure, not for weapons.

In 1999, Egypt and Libya tried to help start peace talks, but they couldn’t get everyone to agree. In 2001, the United States sent a special envoy to help end the war and support the people of Sudan.

In 1989, the United Nations and donor nations started a plan called Operation Lifeline Sudan to bring food to people in Sudan during a drought. This helped prevent many people from going hungry. Unfortunately, because of human rights issues and Sudan’s support of Iraq during the Gulf War, many donors reduced their aid.

Arms suppliers

Before the war began, the United States had given weapons to Sudan, but this support ended in 1987.

During the 1980s, East Germany gave the rebels called the SPLA guns called AK-47s.

In 1993, reports said Iran helped Sudan buy 20 attack planes from China and gave money and helped arrange for more weapons to arrive. Meanwhile, the SPLA received weapons from Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Uganda. The Israeli embassy in Kenya also gave the rebels anti-tank missiles.

Child soldiers

Armies on all sides included children in their groups during the conflict. A peace agreement in 2005 said these children should be sent home. Some groups said they released thousands of children, but sometimes these children were asked to join again. By 2004, there were still many children serving, and promises were made to release all of them by the end of 2010.

Many South Sudanese boys were forced to leave their homes in the late 1980s. They walked long distances to a refugee camp in Kenya. Some wrote books about their experiences later, sharing their stories of hardship and new beginnings in other countries.

Revival of slavery

During the war, the Sudanese Armed Forces began using forced captivity as a way to harm people in the south, especially Christian prisoners of war.

Muraheleen, armed Baggara herders, helped the Sudanese government in its fight against the rebel Sudan People's Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A), which was linked to the Dinka tribe of southern Sudan. These groups attacked villages, harming many people and taking women and children. The first attack on the Dinka happened in February 1986, where two thousand women and children were taken. Another attack in February 1987 took one thousand more. These captured people were often kept by the attackers or their families.

Some girls were treated very badly and sold in places like Libya. People from other countries tried to help by raising money to free these captured individuals.