SafekipediaKartvelian languages
Adapted from Wikipedia · Adventurer experience
The Kartvelian languages, also called South Caucasian or Kartvelic languages, are a special group of languages. People mainly speak them in the country of Georgia. About 5 million people speak the most common Kartvelian language, Georgian, all around the world.
What makes the Kartvelian languages special is that they are different from other language families. They do not share a common origin with any other group of languages.
The most widely spoken language in this family is standard Georgian. It is the only one with a long history of writing. The oldest known writing in any Kartvelian language is an Old Georgian inscription. People found this near an old Georgian monastery close to Bethlehem. It dates back to around 430 AD. All Kartvelian languages use special Georgian scripts for writing. This makes their writing system interesting and unique.
Status
Georgian is the official language of Georgia and is used for most writing and business. It has its own special alphabet. The oldest books in Georgian date back to the 5th century AD. The way letters are ordered in Georgian is mostly like the Greek alphabet, but it has some extra letters for sounds only found in Georgian.
Mingrelian is mainly a spoken language used in certain areas, and people who speak it usually use Georgian for writing. For a long time, there were no books explaining Mingrelian rules or dictionaries for it. Only a few books in Mingrelian have been published in recent years.
The Laz language was written down mostly between 1927 and 1937, and later in Turkey using the Latin alphabet. Today, Laz is at risk because many of its speakers are starting to use Turkish instead.
Classification
The Kartvelian language family has four closely related languages.
- Svan has speakers in Georgia's mountainous northwest.
- Georgian-Zan includes:
Genealogical tree
The link between these languages was noted a long time ago and confirmed by experts. Studies suggest these languages separated very early.
Higher-level connections
Scientists have not found any proven links between Kartvelian languages and other language families. Some think they might share features with Basque, but this is not certain. It’s possible that some similarities come from languages influencing each other over time.
Phonetics and phonology
Regular correspondences
| Proto-Kartv. | Geo. | Zan | Svan |
|---|---|---|---|
| *ა (*a) [ɑ] | a [ɑ] | o [ɔ] | a [ɑ] |
| *ე (*e) [ɛ] | e [ɛ] | a [ɑ] | e [ɛ] |
| *ი (*i) [i] | i [i] | i [i] | i [i] |
| *ო (*o) [ɔ] | o [ɔ] | o [ɔ] | o [ɔ] |
| *უ (*u) [u] | u [u] | u [u] | u [u] |
| Proto-Kartv. | Geo. | Zan | Svan | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Voiced stops | *ბ (*b) [b] | b [b] | b [b] | b [b] |
| *დ (*d) [d] | d [d] | d [d] | d [d] | |
| *გ (*g) [ɡ] | g [ɡ] | g [ɡ] | g / ǯ [ɡ] / [d͡ʒ] | |
| Voiced affricates | *ძ (*ʒ) [d͡z] | ʒ [d͡z] | ʒ [d͡z] | ʒ / z [d͡z] / [z] |
| *ძ₁ (*ʒ₁) [ɖʐ] | ǯ [d͡ʒ] | ǯ / ž [d͡ʒ] / [ʒ] | ||
| *ჯ (*ǯ) [d͡ʒ] | ǯ [d͡ʒ] | ǯg / ʒg [d͡ʒɡ] / [d͡zɡ] | ǯg / sg [d͡ʒɡ] / [sɡ] | |
| Voiced fricatives | *ზ (*z) [z] | z [z] | z [z] | z [z] |
| *ზ₁ (*z₁) [ʐ] | ž [ʒ] | ž [ʒ] | ||
| *ღ (*ɣ) [ɣ] | ɣ [ɣ] | ɣ [ɣ] | ɣ [ɣ] | |
| *უ̂ (*w) [w] | v [v] | v [v] | w [w] | |
| Ejective stops | *პ (*ṗ) [pʼ] | ṗ [pʼ] | ṗ [pʼ] | ṗ [pʼ] |
| *ტ (*ṭ) [tʼ] | ṭ [tʼ] | ṭ [tʼ] | ṭ [tʼ] | |
| *კ (*ḳ) [kʼ] | ḳ [kʼ] | ḳ [kʼ] | ḳ / č' [kʼ] / [t͡ʃʼ] | |
| *ყ (*qʼ) [qʼ] | qʼ [qʼ] | qʼ / ʔ / ḳ [qʼ] / [ʔ] / [kʼ] | qʼ [qʼ] | |
| Ejective affr. | *წ (*ċ) [t͡sʼ] | ċ [t͡sʼ] | ċ [t͡sʼ] | ċ [t͡sʼ] |
| *წ₁ (*ċ₁) [ʈʂʼ] | čʼ [t͡ʃʼ] | čʼ [t͡ʃʼ] | ||
| *ტʼ (*ɬʼ) [t͡ɬʼ] | h [h] | |||
| *ჭ (*čʼ) [t͡ʃʼ] | čʼ [t͡ʃʼ] | čʼḳ / ċḳ [t͡ʃʼkʼ] / [t͡sʼkʼ] | čʼḳ / šḳ [t͡ʃʼkʼ] / [ʃkʼ] | |
| Voiceless stops and affr. | *ფ (*p) [p] | p [p] | p [p] | p [p] |
| *თ (*t) [t] | t [t] | t [t] | t [t] | |
| *ც (*c) [t͡s] | c [t͡s] | c [t͡s] | c [t͡s] | |
| *ც₁ (*c₁) [ʈʂ] | č [t͡ʃ] | č [t͡ʃ] | ||
| *ჩ (*č) [t͡ʃ] | č [t͡ʃ] | čk [t͡ʃk] | čk / šg [t͡ʃk] / [ʃɡ] | |
| *ქ (*k) [k] | k [k] | k [k] | k / č [k] / [t͡ʃ] | |
| *ჴ (*q) [q] | x [x] | x [x] | q [q] | |
| Voiceless fricatives | *ხ (*x) [x] | x [x] | ||
| *შ (*š) [ʃ] | š [ʃ] | šk / sk [ʃk] / [sk] | šg / sg [ʃɡ] / [sɡ] | |
| *ს (*s) [s] | s [s] | s [s] | s [s] | |
| *ს₁ (*s₁) [ʂ] | š [ʃ] | š [ʃ] | ||
| *ლʿ (*lʿ) [ɬ] | ∅ | l [l] | ||
| Liquids | *ლ (*l) [l] | l [l] | l [l] | |
| *რ (*r) [r] | r [r] | r [r] | r [r] | |
| Nasals | *მ (*m) [m] | m [m] | m [m] | m [m] |
| *ნ (*n) [n] | n [n] | n [n] | n [n] |
Grammar
The Kartvelian languages have a special way of grouping things. They sort objects into two groups: "who" (like people) and "what" (like things).
Kartvelian verbs can show one, two, or three people involved in an action. Verbs with just one person are always about someone doing something without affecting anyone else. Verbs with two people can be about doing something to someone or for someone. Verbs with three people show someone doing something to another person and also giving something to a third person. Special word endings show who is doing what to whom.
These verbs can also show four different kinds of intention behind an action: doing something for oneself, for another person, for another person while being passive, or with no special intention.
| Concrete | Abstract | ||
| Animate | Inanimate | ||
| Human and "human-like" beings (e.g. God, deities, angels) | Animals | Inanimate physical entities | Abstract objects |
| Intelligent | Unintelligent | ||
| "who"-class | "what"-class | ||
| Case | Singular | Plural | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan | Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan | ||
| Nominative | -i | -i/-e | -i | -i | -ep-i | -ep-e | -eb-i | -är | |
| Ergative | -k | -k | -ma | -d | -ep-k | -epe-k | -eb-ma | -är-d | |
| Dative | -s | -s | -s | -s | -ep-s | -epe-s | -eb-s | -är-s | |
| Genitive | -iš | -iš | -is | -iš | -ep-iš | -epe-š(i) | -eb-is | -are-š | |
| Lative | -iša | -iša | —N/a | —N/a | -ep-iša | -epe-ša | —N/a | —N/a | |
| Ablative | -iše | -iše | —N/a | —N/a | -ep-iše | -epe-še(n) | —N/a | —N/a | |
| Instrumental | -it | -ite | -it | -šw | -ep-it | -epe-te(n) | -eb-it | -är-šw | |
| Adverbial | -o(t)/-t | -ot | -ad/-d | -d | -ep-o(t) | —N/a | -eb-ad | -är-d | |
| Finalis | -išo(t) | —N/a | -isad | -išd | -ep-išo(t) | —N/a | -eb-isad | -är-išd | |
| Vocative | —N/a | —N/a | -o (/-v) | —N/a | —N/a | —N/a | -eb-o | —N/a | |
| Case | Singular | Plural | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan | Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan | ||
| Nominative | ǯveš-i | mǯveš-i | ʒvel-i | ǯwinel | ǯveš-ep-i | mǯveš-ep-e | ʒvel-eb-i | ǯwinel-är | |
| Ergative | ǯveš-k | mǯveš-i-k | ʒvel-ma | ǯwinel-d | ǯveš-ep-k | mǯveš-epe-k | ʒvel-eb-ma | ǯwinel-är-d | |
| Dative | ǯveš-s | mǯveš-i-s | ʒvel-s | ǯwinel-s | ǯveš-ep-s | mǯveš-i-epe-s | ʒvel-eb-s | ǯwinel-är-s | |
| Genitive | ǯveš-iš | mǯveš-iš | ʒvel-is | ǯwinl-iš | ǯveš-ep-iš | mǯveš-epe-š | ʒvel-eb-is | ǯwinel-är-iš | |
| Lative | ǯveš-iša | mǯveš-iša | —N/a | —N/a | ǯveš-ep-iša | mǯveš-epe-ša | —N/a | —N/a | |
| Ablative | ǯveš-iše | mǯveš-iše | —N/a | —N/a | ǯveš-ep-iše | mǯveš-epe-še | —N/a | —N/a | |
| Instrumental | ǯveš-it | mǯveš-ite | ʒvel-it | ǯwinel-šw | ǯveš-ep-it | mǯveš-epe-te | ʒvel-eb-it | ǯwinel-är-šw | |
| Adverbial | ǯveš-o | mǯveš-ot | ʒvel-ad | ǯwinel-d | ǯveš-ep-o | —N/a | ʒvel-eb-ad | ǯwinel-är-d | |
| Finalis | ǯveš-išo | —N/a | ʒvel-isad | ǯwinel-išd | ǯveš-ep-išo | —N/a | ʒvel-eb-isad | ǯwinel-är-išd | |
| Vocative | —N/a | —N/a | ʒvel-o | —N/a | —N/a | —N/a | ʒvel-eb-o | —N/a | |
| Unipersonal | Bipersonal | Tripersonal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| intransitive | transitive | intransitive | ditransitive | |
| Subject | + | + | + | + |
| Direct object | + | + | ||
| Indirect object | + | + | ||
| Subject set | |||||||||
| Singular | Plural | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Old Geo. | Mod. Geo. | Ming./Laz | Svan | Old Geo. | Mod. Geo. | Ming./Laz | Svan | ||
| S1 | v- | v- | v- | xw- | v-...-t | v-...-t | v-...-t | xw-...-(š)d (excl.) l-...-(š)d (incl.) | |
| S2 | x/h- | ∅,(h/s)- | ∅ | x-/∅ | x/h-...-t | ∅,(h/s)-...-t | ∅-...-t | x/∅-...-(š)d | |
| S3 | -s,-a/o,-n,-ed | -s,-a/o | -s,-u,-n | (l)-...-s/(a) | -an,-en,-es,-ed | -en,-an,-es | -an,-es | (l)-...-x | |
| Object set | |||||||||
| O1 | m- | m- | m- | m- | m- (excl.) gv- (incl.) | gv- | m-...-t,-an,-es | n- (excl.) gw- (incl.) | |
| O2 | g- | g- | g- | ǯ- | g- | g-...-t | g-...-t,-an,-es | ǯ-...-x | |
| O3 | x/h,∅- | ∅,s/h/∅- | ∅ | ∅,x- | x/h,∅- | ∅,s/h/∅-...-t | ∅-...-t,-an,-es | ∅,x-...-x | |
| Version | Mingrelian | Laz | Georgian | Svan |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Subjective | -i- | -i- | -i- | -i- |
| Objective | -u- | -u- | -u- | -o- |
| Objective-passive | -a- | -a- | -e- | -e- |
| Neutral | -o-/-a- | -o- | -a- | -a- |
| Subject | Direct object | Indirect object | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Class 1 | Class 3 | Class 2 | |||
| Series I | Nominative | Dative | |||
| Series II | Ergative | Nominative | Dative | ||
| Subject | Direct object | Indirect object | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Class 1 | Class 3 | Class 2 | |||
| Series I | Ergative | Nominative | Dative | ||
| Series II | Ergative | Nominative | Dative | ||
| Subject | Direct object | Indirect object | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Class 1 | Class 3 | Class 2 | |||
| Series I | Nominative | Dative | |||
| Series II | Ergative | Nominative | Dative | ||
Examples of vocabulary
| Proto-Kartv. form | Karto-Zan | Svan | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-form | Georgian | Mingrelian | Laz | |||
| 1. one, 2. other | *s₁xwa [ʂxwɑ] | *s₁xwa [ʂxwɑ] | sxva [sxvɑ] (other) | šxva [ʃxva] (other) | čkva / škva [t͡ʃkvɑ] / [ʃkvɑ] (other, one more) | e-šxu [ɛ-ʃxu] (one) |
| one | n/a | *erti [ɛrti] | erti [ɛrti] | arti [ɑrti] | ar [ɑr] | n/a |
| two | *yori [jɔri] | *yori [jɔri] | ori [ɔri] | žiri / žəri [ʒiri] / [ʒəri] | žur / ǯur [ʒur] / [d͡ʒur] | yori [jɔri] |
| three | *sami [sɑmi] | *sami [sɑmi] | sami [sɑmi] | sumi [sumi] | sum [sum] | semi [sɛmi] |
| four | *otxo [ɔtxɔ] | *otxo [ɔtxɔ] | otxi [ɔtxi] | otxi [ɔtxi] | otxo [ɔtxɔ] | w-oštxw [w-ɔʃtxw] |
| five | *xuti [xuti] | *xuti [xuti] | xuti [xuti] | xuti [xuti] | xut [xut] | wo-xušd [wɔ-xuʃd] |
| six | *eks₁wi [ɛkʂwi] | *eks₁wi [ɛkʂwi] | ekvsi [ɛkvsi] | amšvi [ɑmʃwi] | aši [ɑʃi] | usgwa [usɡwɑ] |
| seven | *šwidi [ʃwidi] | *šwidi [ʃwidi] | švidi [ʃvidi] | škviti [ʃkviti] | škvit [ʃkvit] | i-šgwid [i-ʃɡwid] |
| eight | *arwa [ɑrwɑ] | *arwa [ɑrwɑ] | rva [rvɑ] | ruo / bruo [ruɔ] / [bruɔ] | ovro / orvo [ɔvrɔ] / [ɔrvɔ] | ara [ɑrɑ] |
| nine | *ts₁xara [t͡ʂxɑrɑ] | *ts₁xara [t͡ʂxɑrɑ] | tsxra [t͡sxrɑ] | čxoro [t͡ʃxɔrɔ] | čxoro [t͡ʃxɔrɔ] | čxara [t͡ʃxɑrɑ] |
| ten | *a(s₁)ti [ɑ(ʂ)ti] | *ati [ɑti] | ati [ɑti] | viti [viti] | vit [vit] | ešd [ɛʃd] |
| twenty | n/a | *ots₁i [ɔt͡ʂi] | otsi [ɔt͡si] | etsi [ɛt͡ʃi] | etsi [ɛt͡ʃi] | n/a |
| hundred | *as₁i [ɑʂi] | *as₁i [ɑʂi] | asi [ɑsi] | oši [ɔʃi] | oši [ɔʃi] | aš-ir [ɑʃ-ir] |
| Personal Pronouns | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-Kartv. | Georgian | Mingrelian | Laz | Svan | |
| I | *me [mɛ] | me [mɛ] | ma [mɑ] | ma(n) [mɑ] | mi [mi] |
| You (sg.) | *sen [sɛn] | šen [ʃɛn] | si [si] | si(n) [si] | si [si] |
| That | *e- [ɛ-] | e-sa [ɛ-sɑ] | e-na [ɛ-nɑ] | (h)e-ya [(h)ɛ-jɑ] | e-ǯa [ɛ-d͡ʒɑ] |
| We | *čwen [t͡ʃwɛn] | čven [t͡ʃvɛn] | čki(n) / čkə(n) [t͡ʃki(n)] / [t͡ʃkə(n)] | čkin / čku / šku [t͡ʃkin] / [t͡ʃku] / [ʃku] | näy [næj] |
| You (pl.) | *stkwen [stkwɛn] | tkven [tkvɛn] | tkva(n) [tkvɑ(n)] | tkvan [tkvɑn] | sgäy [sɡæj] |
| Possessive Pronouns | |||||
| Proto-Kartv. | Georgian | Mingrelian | Laz | Svan | |
| My | *č(w)e-mi [t͡ʃ(w)ɛ-mi] | če-mi [t͡ʃɛ-mi] | čki-mi [t͡ʃki-mi] | čki-mi / ški-mi [t͡ʃki-mi] / [ʃki-mi] | mi-šgu [mi-ʃɡu] |
| Your (sg.) | *š(w)eni [ʃ(w)ɛni] | šeni [ʃɛni] | skani [skɑni] | skani [skɑni] | i-sgu [i-sɡu] |
| His/her/its | *m-is₁ [m-iʂ] | m-is-i [m-is-i] | mu-š-i [mu-ʃ-i] | (h)e-mu-š-i [(h)ɛ-mu-ʃ-i] | m-ič-a [m-it͡ʃ-ɑ] |
| Our | *čweni [t͡ʃwɛni] | čveni [t͡ʃvɛni] | čkini / čkəni [t͡ʃkini] / [t͡ʃkəni] | čkini / čkuni / škuni [t͡ʃkini] / [t͡ʃkuni] / [ʃkuni] | gu-šgwey (excl.) [ɡu-ʃɡwɛj] ni-šgwey (incl.) [ni-ʃɡwɛj] |
| Your (pl.) | *stkweni [stkwɛni] | tkveni [tkvɛni] | tkvani [tkvɑni] | tkvani [tkvɑni] | i-sgwey [i-sɡwɛj] |
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