Schools of Islamic theology

Schools of Islamic theology are different ways that people who follow Islam think about important beliefs. These ideas are called "creed."

There are several main groups with their own ideas. Some of these groups, like the Mu'tazili, Ash'ari, Maturidi, and Athari schools, still exist today. Others, like the Qadari, Jahmi, Murji', and Batini schools, are no longer around.

The big split between the main branches of Islam—Sunni, Shia, and Khariji—started because of political reasons. Over time, they also developed different theological ideas. Understanding these schools helps us see how people in Islam think about big questions and beliefs.

Divinity schools in Islamic theology

Main articles: Aqidah and Islamic schools and branches

Islamic theology has many different schools of thought about what Muslims believe. These schools talk about important ideas such as the nature of God, free will, and how we understand the holy book, the Quran. Some of the main schools today are the Mu'tazili, Ash'ari, Maturidi, and Athari schools. There were also schools in the past like the Qadari, Jahmi, Murji', and Batini, but they are no longer around.

The big split between Sunni, Shia, and Khariji Muslims started as a political disagreement about who should lead the Muslim community after the prophet Muhammad passed away. Over time, theological differences also developed between these groups. Each school of thought has its own way of understanding and explaining religious beliefs.

Sunnī schools of theology

Main article: Sunni Islam

Most Sunni scholars follow the Ash‘ariyya school of theology, but the Mātūrīd’iyyah school is also very important. Sunni Muslims are the largest group within Islam and are often called 'Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h' or simply 'Ahl as-Sunnah'. The word Sunni comes from Sunnah, meaning the teachings and actions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. So, being Sunni means following the Sunnah of Muhammad.

Sunni Muslims believe that Muhammad did not choose a successor before he passed away. After some time, his close friends chose Abu Bakr as the first leader, or 'Caliph', of Islam. Sunni Muslims respect the first four caliphs — Abu Bakr, `Umar ibn al-Khattāb, Uthman Ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abu Talib — as “The Rightly Guided Caliphs”. After these leaders, the role of caliph became more about showing unity rather than active leadership.

Athari

Main article: Athari

Further information: Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Dawud al-Zahiri, Al-Tabari, Al-Tahawi, and Ibn Taymiyya

Athari is a group of Islamic scholars who focus on the exact words of the Quran without using too much reasoning. They believe the clear messages from the Quran and traditions of Muhammad are enough to guide belief. Using too much logic in religious matters is not encouraged.

ʿIlm al-Kalām

Main article: Ilm al-Kalam

ʿIlm al-Kalām is a way of studying Islamic beliefs using reason and logic, along with the teachings from the Quran. Scholars who study this are called mutakallim.

Ashʿarīyyah

Main article: Ash'ari

Further information: Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari, Al-Ghazali, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Ibn Khaldun, and Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani

The Ash‘arīyyah school began with Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī. He taught that God creates everything, including every moment and every small action, but people are still responsible for their choices. This school became very important in Sunni Islam.

Mātūrīd’iyyah

Main article: Maturidi

Further information: Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, Al-Hakim al-Samarqandi, Abu al-Mu'in al-Nasafi, Abu Hafs Umar al-Nasafi, and Jalal al-Din Rumi

The Maturidi school started with Abu Mansur al-Maturidi. It is very popular in some areas. The Maturidi school thinks that while revelation is important, people can also use reason to understand some moral issues. However, they still believe revelation is needed for deeper spiritual truths.

Muʿtazila

Main article: Muʿtazila

Further information: Wasil Ibn 'Ata', Ibrahim al-Nazzam, Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad, Al-Jahiz, and Al-Zamakhshari

The Muʿtazila was a group in early Islam. They tried to stay calm during big arguments after the third leader, Uthman, died.

By the 10th century, the name also meant a group who studied religious ideas in places like Basra and Baghdad.

The Muʿtazila taught that God is one and fair. They believed people could choose their own actions and that the Quran was made later, which was not the same as many others thought. Their ideas were shaped by old Greek thoughts, but they always began with Islam's main beliefs.

Jahmiyyah

Main article: Jahmites

Jahmis followed a thinker named Jahm bin Safwan, who was linked to Al-Harith ibn Surayj. Jahm had a strong belief called determinism. He believed that people's actions happen like the sun setting — things occur, but people do not really choose them.

Qadariyyah

Main article: Qadariyyah

Qadariyyah was an early group of Islamic thinkers. They believed that people have free will and can choose to do good or bad. They thought that God only punishes people for their own choices. This idea was later supported by the Mu'tazilis but rejected by the Ash'aris. Another group, the Maturidi school, tried to balance these ideas.

Hasan al Basri was the first to clearly explain these beliefs. He taught that God creates good things, and that evil comes from human choices. He also believed that people can decide whether to follow God or not. The group thought that the devil (Iblīs) chose to be bad on his own. One of Hasan's students, Amr ibn Ubayd, became an important leader in a movement called the Mutazilites.

Muhakkima

Main article: Muhakkima

The Muhakkima were a group that left Ali's army after a disagreement called the Arbitration Incident. They split into two main groups: the Kharijites and the Ibadis.

Main article: Khawarij

The Kharijites believed that some early leaders did not follow the right way. They thought that when there is a problem, it should be solved through fighting, not talking. They had strong ideas about who should lead and how to follow the rules.

Main article: Ibadi

The Ibadiyya share some ideas with other Islamic groups like the Ashʿarī, Mu'tazila, and Sunni Islam, as well as some Shīʿīte beliefs.

Murji'ah

Main article: Murji'ah

Murji'ah (Arabic: المرجئة) was an early group in Islam. They talked about how bad actions might change someone's faith. The Murji'ah thought that doing wrong things did not change if someone was a true believer, but it did affect their goodness. They believed only God could decide if someone was a true believer. Even people who made big mistakes could still be believers if they said the basic words of faith. Later, many Islamic groups agreed with this idea.

Shīʿa schools of theology

Main articles: Shi'ites, Imamah (Shia doctrine), and Shia Islamic beliefs and practices

The Zaydi group in Shīʿa Islam is close to the Muʿtazila school. They mostly agree but differ in their views about the Imamate.

The Bāṭen’iyyah began with Abu’l-Khāttāb Muhammad ibn Abu Zaynab al-Asadī. It looks at deeper meanings in the Quran and includes Ismāʿīlī and Twelver Shīʿa followers.

The Ismāʿīlīs believe in leaders called imams or da'is. They follow Isma'il ibn Jafar as their leader after his father Ja'far al-Sadiq. They think Muḥammad ibn Ismā'īl al-Maktum was the next leader.

Followers of the Bāṭen’iyyah-Twelver school include Alevis and Nusayris. They have their own legal system.

Alevis are sometimes seen as part of Twelver Shīʿīsm or as their own tradition. They believe in the Twelve Imams but do not practice polygamy. They are mainly found in East-Central Turkey.

In Turkey, Shīʿa Muslims follow the Ja'fari legal system and are called "Ja'faris".

Twelvers believe in twelve Shīʿa Imams. The twelfth Imam is thought to be hidden. Twelver Shīas are the largest Shīʿa group and live mainly in Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and Bahrain.

Followers of the Ja'fari system are called Ja'fari.

Shaykhism began in the early 19th century in Iran. Many Shaykhis later became Bábí or Baháʼí.

Alawites follow their own legal system and beliefs. They see themselves as Muslims but have unique ideas.

Qizilbash and Bektashi groups share beliefs and practices. They developed their own traditions.

Tashbih

Main articles: Tashbih and Anthropopathy

Karram’iyyah

Main article: Karramiyya

The Karram’iyyah group thought that God has a body. They believed God could touch a special chair in heaven.

Further information: Anthropomorphism

Anthropopathy in the history of Ghulāt Shīʿīsm

Main articles: Anthropopathism and Anthropotheism

Long ago, some groups believed a person could become like God. This idea started with a group called the Sabaʾiyya. Later, leaders such as Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, Abu Muslim, Sunpadh, Ishaq al-Turk, Al-Muqanna, Babak Khorramdin, Maziar, and Ismail I were seen by some as God made human.

Further information: Ghulāt, List of extinct Shia sects, Kaysanites Shia, and Khurramites

Ahmadiyya

The Ahmadis share beliefs with Sunni traditions, like The Five Pillars of Islam and The Six articles of Islamic Faith. They use the Qur'an as their holy book, face the Kaaba when they pray, and honor the Hadiths and Sunnah of Muhammad.

Ahmadi teachings say that leaders of major world religions got guidance from God. They believe Islam is the final and most complete religion, with Muhammad as its last prophet. They view Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a special leader who helped renew faith and bring people back to Islam.