Crimean War

The Crimean War was a big war fought between the Russian Empire and a group of countries including the Ottoman Empire, the Second French Empire, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. It lasted from October 1853 to February 1856. The war started because of arguments between France and Russia about who should protect Christian minorities in Palestine. When talks failed, Russia moved troops into areas near the Ottoman Empire, which led the Ottomans to declare war. Britain and France joined later to stop Russia from becoming too powerful.

Fighting took place in many places, but the most important events happened in Crimea. The allied forces tried to capture Russia’s big naval base at Sevastopol. After some battles, the war turned into a long siege where soldiers faced very hard conditions. The war ended with a treaty in 1856 that limited Russia’s navy in the Black Sea and helped some Ottoman regions become more independent.

The Crimean War was important because it showed how new inventions like railways, telegraphs, and new weapons changed battles. It was also one of the first wars to be widely written about and photographed. The war helped improve medical care because of the work of Florence Nightingale, who introduced better ways to care for sick and wounded soldiers. For Russia, the war was a big setback that led to important changes in their country, including the end of serfdom in Russia.

Eastern question

Main article: Eastern question

As the Ottoman Empire grew weaker in the 1800s, Russia wanted to expand its land to the south. This made Britain and France worry, because they were allies with the Ottoman Empire and did not want Russia to grow stronger. Historians say the Crimean War happened because all these big countries were afraid of each other, not because they were being mean on purpose. Each country had its own reasons to fight, and they felt they had to protect their interests, which led to the war.

Background

Weakening of the Ottoman Empire: 1820–1840s

In the early 1800s, the Ottoman Empire faced many challenges. The Serbian Revolution in 1804 led to the first Balkan Christian nation becoming independent. The Greek War of Independence, starting in 1821, showed the empire’s weakness. France took control of Algeria in 1830, which had been under Ottoman rule. In 1831, Muhammad Ali of Egypt declared independence from the Ottoman Empire.

Russia signed the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi in 1833, creating a military alliance with the Ottoman Empire. This treaty helped Russia protect its interests. By 1841, the London Straits Convention was signed, which changed the rules about who could use the Black Sea straits.

Russian expansionism

Russia wanted to expand southward to gain access to warm water ports in the Black Sea. This expansion brought Russia into conflict with the Ottoman Empire. Russia saw itself as the protector of Orthodox Christians under Ottoman rule, while Britain wanted to keep the Ottoman Empire strong to balance power in Europe.

Immediate causes of war

The immediate cause of the Crimean War was a dispute between France and Russia over control of Christian holy places in Palestine. France, under Napoleon III, wanted to increase its influence and asserted control over these sites. Russia disagreed and sent troops to the Danube River, threatening Ottoman lands. This tension led Britain and France to side with the Ottoman Empire, resulting in the Crimean War.

First hostilities

In February 1853, the British government chose a new ambassador to the Ottoman Empire. Soon after, Russian forces moved into areas controlled by the Ottomans. Many soldiers became sick, and most deaths were from illness rather than fighting.

The Battle of Sinop was a key fight where a smaller Russian navy attacked a larger Ottoman fleet in a harbor. The Ottoman ships were mostly destroyed, and this event helped the United Kingdom and France decide to join the war against Russia.

Britain and France were worried about Russian plans, so they built defenses near the Dardanelles to stop Russia from moving further. They also tried to make peace, but Russia did not agree to their terms, so the war continued.

Main article: Battle of Sinop

Battles

Map of Crimean War, year 1853

Map of Crimean War, year 1854

Map of Crimean War, year 1855

Danube campaign

See also: Wallachian Revolution of 1848, Moldavian Revolution of 1848, and Convention of Balta Liman

The Danube campaign began when Russian forces occupied areas along the Danube River in 1853. The Ottoman Empire responded by moving forces to the river, setting up strongholds. This action worried Austria, which moved its own forces nearby. However, Austria chose to stay neutral during the war.

After the war began, Ottoman forces crossed the Danube and fought the Russians. Battles took place, and the Ottomans managed to push back the Russians at several points. Later, the Russians tried to advance further but were stopped. By mid-1854, the Russians had to withdraw from some areas due to threats from Austria.

Black Sea theatre

Naval battles started in 1853 when Russian and Ottoman ships clashed. A major battle occurred when a Russian fleet destroyed an Ottoman ship group at Sinop, angering Britain and France. Later, allied fleets moved to support the Ottomans and block Russian ships. The main Russian port of Sevastopol was besieged, and Russian ships were scuttled to prevent capture.

Crimean campaign

The Crimean campaign started in 1854. Allied forces landed on the Crimean peninsula and moved toward the city of Sevastopol. They fought and won the Battle of the Alma against the Russians. The allies then surrounded Sevastopol from the south and began a long siege.

Battle of Balaclava

A major battle happened at Balaclava in 1854. Russian cavalry attacked the allied supply base but were stopped by British and French soldiers. One famous moment was when British soldiers formed a line to stop the cavalry, known as the "Thin Red Line." Later, a mix-up in orders led to a famous cavalry charge by British soldiers, known as the Charge of the Light Brigade.

Winter of 1854–1855

Winter conditions made fighting difficult. Storms and bad weather caused problems for the soldiers and their supplies. Roads turned into mud, and troops suffered from cold and sickness.

Siege of Sevastopol

The siege of Sevastopol lasted from 1854 to 1855. Allies continued to attack the city’s defenses. After many battles and attacks, the city finally fell in September 1855 after a long siege.

Azov campaign

In 1855, allied ships entered the Azov Sea to attack Russian supply lines. They destroyed buildings and prevented food from reaching Russian soldiers in Sevastopol.

Caucasus theatre

Fighting also happened in the Caucasus region. Battles took place between Russian and Ottoman forces. The city of Kars was besieged and eventually surrendered to Russian forces in late 1855.

Baltic theatre

See also: Charles John Napier § Baltic Campaign, and Åland War

Allied fleets entered the Baltic Sea to challenge Russian forces. They attacked Russian ships and ports but faced strong defenses. The allies tried to block Russian trade and keep Russian troops from being sent to other areas.

White Sea theatre

British ships tried to attack the port of Archangel but were stopped by Russian defenses. Another attack on the town of Kola succeeded, and the town was destroyed.

Pacific theatre

Main article: Siege of Petropavlovsk

Fighting also happened in the Far East. Allied ships attacked the Russian port of Petropavlovsk but were driven back. Later attempts were also unsuccessful.

Piedmontese involvement

The Kingdom of Sardinia sent soldiers to fight alongside the French and British. Their bravery helped them gain attention at the peace talks after the war.

Greece

Main article: Greek Volunteer Legion

Greece tried to take advantage of the war but was stopped by Britain and France, who occupied a main port. Greek forces were unable to gain any territory and were not invited to the peace talks.

Kiev Cossack revolt

A revolt by peasants began in Kiev in 1855. They refused to follow orders and in some places attacked local leaders. The revolt spread but was eventually put down.

End of the war

Dissatisfaction with how the war was being handled grew among the people in Britain and other countries. This feeling got worse after problems like the famous Charge of the Light Brigade during the Battle of Balaclava. On January 21, 1855, a protest happened in Trafalgar Square near St Martin-in-the-Fields, where people threw snowballs at cabs and pedestrians to show they were against the war. When police tried to stop them, the snowballs were thrown at the police too. The riot ended when soldiers and police used truncheons.

In Parliament, leaders demanded a full report on all the soldiers, cavalry, and sailors sent to Crimea and the number of losses during the war, especially at the Battle of Balaclava. When Parliament voted 305 to 148 to investigate, the leader of the government, Aberdeen, said he had lost the support of Parliament and stepped down as prime minister on January 30, 1855. Lord Palmerston became the new leader. He wanted to continue the war strongly, cause problems inside Russia, and make sure Russia could no longer threaten Europe. Sweden–Norway and Prussia were ready to join Britain and France, leaving Russia with few allies.

France, which had sent many more soldiers and lost more people than Britain, wanted the war to end, as did Austria. Peace talks began in Paris in February 1856 and went smoothly. France, led by Napoleon III, did not support the strict plans of Britain and Austria because they had no special interests in the Black Sea.

The peace talks at the Congress of Paris led to the Treaty of Paris being signed on March 30, 1856. Russia had to give back the city and fortress of Kars and all other land they held in the Ottoman Empire. Russia also returned Southern Bessarabia to Moldavia. The treaty said that Britain, France, Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire had to return the towns and ports of Sevastopol, Balaklava, Kamish, Eupatoria, Kerch, Jenikale, Kinburn, and all other areas the allies had taken from Russia. Both the Tsar of Russia and the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire agreed not to build any navy or military bases on the Black Sea coast. This made Russia weaker and less of a threat to the Ottomans. The areas of Moldavia and Wallachia were officially given back to the Ottoman Empire but were allowed to govern themselves. The Treaty of Paris allowed the Ottoman Empire to join the group of major European powers, and they promised to respect its independence and land.

After the war, some thoughtful people in Russia felt that their defeat showed they needed to change and improve their society. Grand Duke Constantine, a son of the Tsar, said: “We cannot deceive ourselves any longer; we must say that we are both weaker and poorer than the first-class powers, and furthermore poorer not only in material terms but in mental resources, especially in matters of administration.”

Long-term effects

Main article: Treaty of Paris (1856)

The Crimean War had lasting effects on many countries. Russia faced big changes after the war. The war showed that Russia needed to update its military and build better roads and railways. It also hurt Russia’s pride because many people thought their country was the strongest, but now it seemed weaker.

After the war, France and Russia started to get along better. This helped both countries with their plans. Later, when Prussia fought France, Russia was allowed to change some rules about its navy.

The war also affected the Ottoman Empire. It ran out of money and had to borrow a lot, which caused problems for many years. Austria, which did not fight much in the war, lost friends and power, making its situation harder.

The Crimean War showed that many countries needed to change and work together in new ways, which helped shape what would happen in Europe for many years to come.

Documentation

William Howard Russell wrote about the war for The Times newspaper, and Roger Fenton took photographs. People in the countries involved learned about the war almost as it happened. After the French set up a telegraph near the Black Sea in 1854, news could reach London in two days. By April 1855, when the British connected a cable to Crimea, news arrived in just a few hours. These reports helped shape public opinion and even changed the government in Britain.

Leo Tolstoy wrote short stories about the Siege of Sevastopol, called Sevastopol Sketches. His work showed everyday life for Russian soldiers and citizens during the siege, and some consider him the first war correspondent.

Criticisms and reform

After the Crimean War, many people in Britain felt disappointed. They had supported the war at first, but later saw many problems. The war showed serious mistakes in planning and caring for soldiers. Newspapers called for big changes, but real reforms were slow to happen.

Important advances happened during the war, like better ways to treat injuries and the use of new technology such as railways and the telegraph. These changes helped improve how wars were fought and reported in the future.

Chronology of major battles of the war

• Battle of Sinop, 30 November 1853
• Siege of Silistra, 5 April – 25 June 1854
• First Battle of Bomarsund, 21 June 1854
• Second Battle of Bomarsund, 15 August 1854
• Siege of Petropavlovsk, 30–31 August 1854, on the Pacific coast
• Battle of the Alma, 20 September 1854
• Siege of Sevastopol, 25 September 1854 to 8 September 1855
• Battle of Balaclava, 25 October 1854 (see also Charge of the Light Brigade and the Thin Red Line)
• Battle of Inkerman, 5 November 1854
• Battle of Eupatoria, 17 February 1855
• Battle of the Chernaya (aka "Battle of Traktir Bridge"), 16 August 1855
• Battle of Kinburn (1855), 17 October 1855
• Sea of Azov naval campaign, May to November 1855
• Siege of Kars, June to 28 November 1855